Regulatory and Policy Analysis of Production, Development and Use of Sustainable Aviation Fuels in the United States

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January 03, 2022
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Ekrem Korkut and Lara B. Fowler (Frontiers in Energy Research)  The United States, spurred in part by international developments, is expanding its law and policy to incentivize the use of sustainable aviation fuels. While the U.S. has agreed to participate in the International Civil Aviation Organization’s (ICAO’s) Carbon Offsetting and Reduction Scheme for International Aviation (CORSIA), it has only recently adopted federal rules that define greenhouse gas emission reduction standards for certain classes of airplanes (effective January 2021). However, such standards focus on engine efficiency rather than the fuel burned. For sustainable aviation fuels, the U.S. continues to rely on voluntary programs at a federal, state, and regional level. The federal Renewable Fuel Standard program allows producers to opt in. In addition, states have started to allow sustainable aviation fuel producers to “opt in” to their programs; this includes California’s Low Carbon Fuel Standard, Oregon’s Clean Fuels Program, and Washington’s newly adopted Clean Fuels Program. Other states are also starting to consider such programs. Elsewhere, states like Hawaii are starting to support SAF production in other ways, including through tax mechanisms. In addition, regional and private efforts to adopt and/or promote sustainable aviation fuels are underway. This piecemeal approach—due in part to the lack of cohesive U.S. federal policy—stands in contrast to the European Union’s Renewable Energy Directive and Emissions Trading System, and adoption of policies by European countries. Because of aviation’s international nature, tracking what is happening in Europe matters greatly for U.S. carriers. As the U.S. works to meet its international obligations through CORSIA, finding a way forward with sustainable aviation fuel in the United States may depend on a more defined federal policy. Actions taken by both the EU and European countries offers some guidance for actions that could be taken by the U.S. Even in the absence of more defined measures, better tracking of voluntary measures is a critical step.

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In 2016, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency issued an “endangerment finding” that greenhouse gas emissions from aviation contributed to air pollution under the Clean Air Act. On December 28, 2020, EPA published its first greenhouse gas emissions regulations for airplanes. Further, the U.S. Renewable Fuel Standard (RFS) program, originally enacted in 2005 and amended in 2007, allows renewable jet fuel to generate credits and creates an incentive for SAF; however, these are not requirements. In addition to voluntary opportunities under the RFS, agreements at ICAO are resulting in changes in U.S. policy as mentioned above. More details on each of these dynamics is addressed in further detail below, followed by a review of state and regional/industry initiatives in Part 4.

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Opportunities for Voluntary Credits Under the U.S. Renewable Fuel Standard Program

Although the 2016 Endangerment Finding sets out a not-yet realized regulatory approach for greenhouse gas emissions, there is also a voluntary way for aviation fuel producers to earn credits under the U.S. Renewable Fuel Standard (RFS) program. The U.S. Energy Policy Act of 200516 established the RFS program and added requirements for renewable fuel production as a new section to the Clean Air Act: CAA Section 211(o).17 The program’s goal is to designate “a certain volume of renewable fuel to replace or reduce the quantity of petroleum-based transportation fuel, heating oil or jet fuel” (EPA, n.d.a). The Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 (EISA) increased the mandatory use of renewable fuel to 36 billion gallons of U.S. biofuels in use by 2022.18 It further specified that 21 billion gallons of the 2022 goal must be derived from second generation feedstocks: non-food-based sources such as cellulosic biofuels.19 However, volume requirements for both total renewable fuel and total advanced biofuel have not been met since 2013; this has been authorized through the use of annual waivers (Bracmort, 2020, p. 1).

The RFS requires “obligated” parties to produce or purchase renewable fuels for blending. An obligated party is any “any refiner that produces gasoline or diesel fuel within the 48 contiguous states or Hawaii, or any importers that import gasoline or diesel fuel into the 48 contiguous states or Hawaii during a compliance period.”20 The definition of “obligated parties” does not include aviation fuel producers. Although federal law does not mandate production or use of renewable jet fuel, producers or importers of renewable jet fuels can generate credits under the RFS program if their fuels meet the definition of renewable fuel in 40 CFR Section 80.1401.

This definition includes four categories of renewable fuels: biomass-based diesel, cellulosic biofuel, advanced biofuel and total renewable fuel. Renewable fuels must achieve a reduction in GHG emissions compared to a 2005 petroleum baseline to qualify as a renewable fuel under the RFS program. EISA defines advanced biofuel (code “D-5”) as a renewable fuel, other than corn ethanol, that reduces greenhouse gas emissions by at least 50% when compared to petroleum diesel.21 Cellulosic biofuel (D-3, D-7) is a renewable fuel derived from cellulose, hemicellulose, or lignin derived from renewable biomass and provide a 60% reduction in emissions from baseline gasoline and diesel.22 Biomass-based diesel (D-4) must have a 50% lifecycle GHG reduction.23 Finally, renewable fuels (D-6) is produced from renewable biomass and must achieve at least a 20% reduction in lifecycle GHG emissions.24 Renewable jet fuels can qualify for RINs mostly under the D-4 code. Depending on the production process, they may also qualify for D3, D-5, and D-7.

EPA has approved renewable fuel pathways under the RFS program for all four categories of renewable fuels (EPA, n.d.b). For example, the advanced biofuel pathways already include ethanol derived from sugarcane, cellulosic ethanol made from corn stover, and sustainable jet fuel made from camelina (EPA, n.d.c).

Based on a petition by a renewable fuel producer, EPA periodically approves new pathways for alternative fuels based on feedstock and processes, codified at 40 C.F.R. Section 80.1,426. For example, on September 23, 2019, EPA approved a pathway request from Texmark Chemicals for the production of biomass-based diesel (D-4) for renewable jet fuel (EPA, 2019).25

Credits under the RFS program are tracked using “Renewable Identification Numbers” or RINs. At their simplest, RINs are the “currency” of the RFS program. They serve as the accounting mechanism and trading currency used by obligated parties to satisfy the RFS.

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 Renewable jet fuel has an equivalence value of 1.6, so 1 gallon of renewable jet fuel is associated with 1.6 RINs. These RINs are created by renewable fuel producers or importers, and generally sold along with the renewable fuel to gasoline refiners or importers. RIN production for renewable jet fuel has been modest compared to other renewable fuel types. In 2019, fuel producers introduced 2,428,369 gallons of renewable jet fuel (EV 1.6), which generated 3,885,392 RINs. Despite the COVID-19 pandemic, this number almost doubled at the end of 2020, where producers introduced 4,608,379 gallons of renewable jet fuel (EV 1.6), which generated 7,373,408 RINs (EPA, n.d.c).

Although renewable jet fuels have one of the highest equivalence values (1.6), it still has an equivalence value smaller than renewable diesel (1.7). Because the production of renewable jet fuel generally costs more than renewable diesel, fuel producers prefer to produce renewable diesel rather than renewable jet fuel. One potential medication to incentivize SAF production would be to increase SAF’s equivalence value to 1.7 (Ghatala, 2020).

In addition, a report published by the Atlantic Council proposes extension of application of various tax credit programs to SAF production and development to reduce the price gap between SAF and conventional jet fuel (Ghatala, 2020, p. 39). Possible programs include an investment tax credit program for SAF production facilities, a performance tax credit similar to the IRS section 45Q, which provides a tax credit on a per ton basis for CO2 that is sequestered or CO2 used in enhanced oil or natural gas recovery, and a SAF-focused production tax credit (Ghatala, 2020, p. 16). In addition, existing programs can be modified. For example, the Biodiesel and Renewable Diesel Blender Tax Credit (BTC) is paid to the fuel blenders that place renewable fuels into the market (Ghatala, 2020, p. 21).26 SAF qualifies as a renewable diesel under the BTC, thereby decreasing production cost relative to fossil jet fuel but not against renewable diesel (Ghatala, 2020, p. 21).27 The program provides $1.00 per gallon of biodiesel or renewable diesel used in the blending process. Because this program expires in December 2022, the report proposes extending the program for SAF for a longer term.28

The opportunity to implement or extend such tax credits exists. Congress introduced the Sustainable Skies Act in May 2021, which would create a blender’s tax credit for SAF. The bill would provide a long-term blender’s tax credit between $1.50/gallon up and $2.00/gallon for fuels that achieve a 100% GHG emissions reductions (Hubbard, 2021). However, this has not yet passed.

Despite the 2016 Endangerment Finding and subsequent federal laws related to regulating aviation emissions, U.S. federal law and policy remains based on voluntary measures driven by the Renewable Fuel Standard.

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In September 2018, CARB voted to add SAF producers to the list of entities that may voluntarily opt-in to the LCFS program. As of January 1, 2019, alternative jet fuels can generate credits under California’s LCFS. Currently, aircraft, military vehicles, ocean vessels, and locomotives are exempt from LCFS regulation. Some SAF related credits are being generated under this opt-in.

On November 5, 2020, the average incentive per gallon for SAF in a given year was $1.0516/gal, a decrease from $1.4250/gal (Pedrick, 2020); additional information on SAF consumed versus credits is included in Table 1. However, SAF production in California is sputtering compared to production of renewable diesel. Why? The main reason is that renewable diesel allows an obligated party to avoid generating deficits that would have resulted from the use of conventional diesel. However, conventional jet fuel or aviation gasoline is exempt under the LCFS and does not generate deficits. Second, a fuel with a low carbon intensity (e.g. produced from used cooking oil or tallow) will generate more revenue than a fuel with a high carbon intensity (e.g. produced from soybean oil) (Mazzone et al., 2021, p. 13). Renewal diesel and SAF are produced by using similar feedstocks and process. However, SAF requires an additional fractionation step which adds cost to the production of SAF. Because the LCFS program assigns renewable diesel a higher energy density, obligated parties prefer to produce renewable diesel compared to SAF (Mladenik, 2020).

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Oregon’s Clean Fuels Program is modeled on California’s LCFS; like in California, the aviation sector is not required to but may generate credits.

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Fuels used for aviation, construction equipment, farm vehicles, locomotives, logging vehicles, military vehicles, racing vehicles and watercrafts are exempt from the carbon intensity reduction requirements. However, as of January 1, 2019, renewable aviation fuels are now an “opt in” fuel for generating credits, which may spur further development (Lipson, 2019).41

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The State of Washington followed the path taken by California and Oregon by adopting a Clean Fuels Program which allows SAF producers to generate credits. This is critical as Washington has several large U.S. Air Force and Navy installations and is among the top-10 jet fuel consuming states (U.S. Energy Information Administration, 2021b). It is also home to Boeing, one of the world’s largest aircraft manufacturers.

Setting the stage was Washington’s Renewable Fuel Standard (WRFS), effective in 2013, which requires that at least 2% of all of the diesel fuel sold within the state be biodiesel or renewable diesel.46 

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The bill ordered the Washington Department of Ecology to develop rules to implement the program which must become effective no later than January 1, 2023.50 The bill exempts fuels used for aircraft, vessels, railroad locomotives, military tactical vehicles, and until January 1, 2028, logging, off-road, agriculture and mining vehicles (Hopkins et al., 2021).51 However, like in California and Oregon, these industries can voluntarily opt in to the program in order to generate credits. The Clean Fuels Program will be linked to low carbon fuel standard programs in Oregon and California, creating a robust market for carbon reduction credits (Christensen et al., 2021). How this regional approach affects aviation-related credits also remains to be seen.

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Hawaii is beginning to develop an incentive system for SAF, mainly through tax credits. This is bolstered by Hawaii’s determination to “achieve its goal of 100 percent of renewable energy generation by 2045” (Hawaii State Energy Office, N.D.). Although this is currently focused on generation of electricity, Hawaii’s focus on renewable energy sources may provide the policy support needed to grow the biofuels industry for transportation, including for aviation.

There are a number of laws in place that support renewable fuels. For example, Hawaii enacted the Hawaii Environmental Response, Energy, and Food Security Tax (aka the “Barrel Tax”) in 1993. The Barrel Tax, originally set at $0.05 per barrel, increased to $1.05 per barrel on July 1, 2010 with the passage of Act 73, Session Laws of Hawaii 2010.52 In theory, the tax discourages the importation and use of petroleum-based fuels, incentivizing the use of alternative or biofuels. Its major impact, however, has been to create a funding source for energy and food security initiatives. 

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A direct avenue to support aviation and implementation of SAF may come through a production tax credit. A renewable fuels production tax credit provides an income tax credit equal to $0.20 per 76,000 BTUs (or about $0.29 per gallon) of renewable fuels including renewable jet fuel sold for distribution in Hawaii beginning after December 31, 2016.54

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However, this tax credit program expires on December 31, 2021; 58 if it is renewed, it may be a vehicle to support production of SAF.

Financial incentives and a voluntary market may also help. In 2021, Hawaii passed House Bill 683, which has established a SAF program to provide matching grants to Hawaii small businesses developing and producing SAF (Burnett, 2021).59 The bill set baseline carbon intensity for jet fuel at 89 g of CO2 per megajoule.60 Therefore, a SAF production which has carbon intensity below 89 g of CO2 per megajoule would be eligible to receive matching grants.

Other proposed incentives might help bolster local SAF production. For example, in March 2020, the Hawaii legislation proposed to replace the existing barrel tax with a carbon emission tax on each fossil fuel, including jet fuel. If enacted, the tax on jet fuel would be $0.0598 per gallon.61 Hawaiian Senator Karl Rhoads said that “aviation fuel and electricity are taxed relatively lightly if you look at the per-carbon content” (Dalzell, 2019). While the bill did not advance to the House floor, it does signify that aviation fuel is a topic of concern.

An alternative pathway may also come through a statewide alternative fuel standard. In 2006, the Hawaiian legislature passed Act 240, creating the Hawaii Alternative Fuel Standard (AFS). This Act required 20 percent of highway fuel to come from alternative fuel by 2020, increasing to 30 percent by 2030.62 It includes biomass crops and municipal solid waste as eligible renewable energy sources. Ethanol produced from cellulosic materials is considered the equivalent of 2.5 gallons of non-cellulosic ethanol under the AFS.63 While aviation is currently not a regulated under Hawaii’s AFS, which currently focuses only on highway fuel standards, it could be modified or updated like Washington State did to allow for SAF.

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Because of the different developments at the federal and state level—in part in response to CORSIA—some airports and airlines are adopting infrastructure for SAF with private industry is scaling up to meet these demands.

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Airlines are also taking steps toward sustainable aviation fuel. 

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Other private companies are also working to meet demand for SAF.

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While the U.S. federal and state governments are working on potential incentives for renewable jet fuel, the aviation industry is global and responding to international pressures as well. In 2009, the European Union adopted a Renewable Energy Directive which required fuel suppliers to produce at least 14% of their transportation fuel from renewable fuels. Although the RED targets do not apply to aviation fuel, SAF counts as a renewable source to meet the RED targets (European Union Aviation Safety Agency et al., 2019, p. 48). Along with EU wide policies, country-specific laws are driving change.

The EU Renewable Energy Directive (RED)

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EU Emissions Trading System (EU ETS)

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“Fit for 55”

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European Country Level Actions

In addition to EU-wide action, different countries are also enacting legislation. For example, the Netherlands has enacted national legislation which allowed SAF producers to generate biofuel certificates (called Hernieuwbare Energie Eenheid-HBEs), when supplying SAF to the Dutch Market. These HBEs can be sold to the road transport obligated parties (Meijerink, 2016, p. 6). The SAF must be produced in the Netherlands (Meijerink, 2016, p. 19).

Germany increased its aviation tax which entered into force in April 2020 (Ash, 2019). The aim of the tax is to reduce CO2 emissions from the aviation sector and incentivize people to use less air travel and more railway transportation. The tax increase will raise airfares by around 28% overall (Ash, 2019). The tax is charged per passenger at the following rates: domestic and Europe flights, €12.88; mid-haul, €32.62; and long haul (which is more than 6,000 km), €58.73 (FCC Aviation, n.d.a).

France adopted the French Eco Tax but delayed its entry until air traffic returns to 2019 levels (Mitchell, 2021; FCC Aviation, n.d.b). It will be applied with the solidarity tax. Passengers traveling to airports in the European Economic Area and Switzerland will be charged at €2.63 (lower rate) or €20.27 (higher rate) depends on traveling in lowest class or higher classes. Passengers traveling to all other destination will be charged between €7.51 or €63.07 (Mitchell, 2021; FCC Aviation, n.d.b). The French government also announced a roadmap to replace jet fuel with 2% of SAF from 2025, 5% by 2030 and 50% by 2050 (GreenAir, 2020).

Since January 2020, Norway requires aviation fuel suppliers to blend 0.5% biofuel into their jet fuel (Norwegian Ministry of Climate and Environment, 2018). The country aims to have a 30% share of biofuels in the aviation sector by 2030 (Gevo Inc., 2020).

In contrast, the United Kingdom Renewable Transport Fuel Obligation (RTFO) requires suppliers of transport and non-road mobile machinery fuel in the United Kingdom to show that at least 9.75% of the fuel they supply after 2020 (which will increase to 12.4% in 2032) comes from renewable and sustainable sources (Department of Transport, 2018). Although aviation fossil fuels are not covered under the RTFO program, the changes in 2018 to the RTFO have allowed renewable jet producers to opt into the program (Department of Transport, 2018). After the withdrawal of the United Kingdom from the EU, the United Kingdom adopted the United Kingdom Emission Trading Scheme replacing the EU ETS.  READ MORE

 

While there is no renewable fuel obligation under the RFS2 program for the production or importation of conventional jet fuel, RINs can be generated for renewable jet fuel. Is that right? (Environmental Protection Agency)

Summary of the Energy Independence and Security Act (Environmental Protection Agency)

 

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depolymerization depots dextrose dfdsffsfdfsf diatoms diesel Diesel Emissions Reduction Act (DERA) diesel fuel blendstock diesel prices Diesel R5 diesel with renewables diesel-range hydrocarbons diesel-to-biodiesel conversion diethyl ether digital Digital Biology diisobutylene (DIB) dilute acid hydrolysis pretreatment DIN 51605 DIN EN 15376 (Ethanol blending component) direct air capture direct injection direct ocean capture Direct Sugar to Hydrocarbon Conversion (DSHC) direct-to-fuel directed evolution dispense distillates distillation distilled biodiesel distilled palm methyl ester (DPME) distilleries distributed/centralized distribution distribution capacity distribution waiver diversification divestment DME/rDME (dimethyl ether)/renewable DME DMF (2.5-dimethylfuran) Dominican Republic double cropping drawdown Drones/Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAV) drop-in biofuels/hydrocarbons drought drought tolerant drought-resistant dry ice dual cropping Dubai duckweed e e-diesel e-LNG (synthetic/electro Liquified Natural Gas) e-methanol e-NG (synthetic natural gas) E. coli E0 E0 price E1 E10 E10 certification fuel E10 price E100 E100 conversion kit E11 E12 E13 E15 E15 price E15 pumps E2 E20 E20 price E20 pumps E22 E25 E25 pumps E27 E3 E30 E30 capable E30 certification fuel E30 optimized E30 price E30 pumps E35 E4 E40 E40 conversion kit E40 pumps E5 E5 price E50 E55 E6 E7 E70 diesel E75 E78 E8 E80 E85 E85 conversion kit E85 optimized engines E85 price E85 pumps E90 E92 E95 E97 E98 earthquakes East Africa Eastern Europe economic development Economic Development Administration economic modeling economic policy economics Ecosystems Services Ecuador ED7 (7% ethanol 93% diesel) ED95 education Education Series 3030 educational business private educational tour EERE efficiency egg shell Egypt El Salvador Electric aircraft Electric Car/Electric Vehicle (EV) electric car/Electric Vehicle (EV) Prices electric grid electricity electricity price electricity/power generation electricity/power transmission electrocatalysis electrochemical electrochemical cell electrofuels (e-fuels) electrofuels (e-fuels) prices electrolysis electrolytic cation exchange electromethanogenesis (ME) electrons Elephant grass/Napier grass elephants embargo eminent domain emissions emissions standards EN 15751 EN 15940 EN 16709 EN 228 EN 590 EN228 (standard pump gasoline) end user end-of-life Endangered Species Act (ESA) Energy Bill energy cane energy consumption energy crops energy density energy dominance energy grasses energy independence Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 (EISA) Energy Information Administration (US EIA) energy law energy policy energy prices energy reserves Energy Return on Energy Invested (EROEI or EROI) energy security Energy Security Trust energy storage enforcement engine Engine Development engine problems Engine/Fuel Co-optimization engineering England enhanced oil recovery (EOR) entrepreneur environment environmental impact study (EIS) environmental justice/socially inclusive environmental policy Environmental Quality Incentive Program (EQIP) Environmentalists Enzymatic enzymatic conversion enzymatic depolymerization enzymatic hydrolysis enzyme production enzyme recycling Enzyme solicitation enzymes EPA (Environmental Protection Agency) EPACT (Energy Policy Act) Equatorial Guinea equipment eRINs/electric pathway Eritrea erosion control EROWI (Energy Return on Water Invested) ESG (Environmental Social Governance) esterification Estonia ETBE (ethyl tert-butyl ether) etha ethane ethanol ethanol benefits ethanol blend wall ethanol blended diesel ED ethanol blends/ethanol flex fuels ethanol emissions ethanol ether diesel fuel ethanol fire ethanol fuel cells ethanol hybrid ethanol pipeline ethanol prices ethanol production ethanol pumps ethanol tax ethanol terminal ethanol to gas ethanol tolerance ethanol-fueled aircraft Ethanol-to-Gasoline (ETG) ethanol/bioethanol ethanol/diesel ethanol/methanol synthesis ethanol2G Ethiopia Ethiopian mustard ethyl levulinate (EL) ethylbenzene ethylene ets eucalyptus Euglena European Emissions Trading System (ETS) European Union (EU) eutrophication executive order executive order--state Extended Range Electric Vehicle (EREV) externalities extremophiles f F Factor F-24 F-34 F-76 (Marine Diesel) F-T FAEE FAEE (fatty acid ethyl esters) Fair trade False Claims Act FAME (Fatty Acid Methyl Ester) Farm Bill Farm Bureau farm equipment farm policy Farm to Fleet Farm to Fly farmers farming farnesane farnesene Fats fecal sludge Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC) Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) federal land Federal Railroad Administration Federal Reserve Bank Federal Trade Commission (FTC) Federal Transit Administration (FTA) feed Feed In Tariffs (FIT) feed prices Feedstock Flexibility Program for Bioenergy Producers feedstock logistics feedstock material feedstock prices feedstock storage feedstock terminal feedstock transportation Feedstocks fermentation ferry fertilizer fiber Fiji Financing Finland Fischer-Tropsch Synthetic Kerosene with Aromatics (FT-SKA) Fischer-Tropsch Synthetic Paraffinic Kerosene (FT-SPK) Fischer-Tropsch Synthetic Paraffinic Kerosene with Aromatics (FT-SPK/A) Fischer-Tropsch/FT fish feed fish oil fish waste fit for purpose Fixed Base Operator (FBO) flameleaf sumac flavors flax fleet turnover Fleets fleshings flex-fuel vehicles (FFV) flight tests Flightpath flixweed/tansy/herb-Sophia flood-prone soil Florida flue gas FOG (Fats/Oils/Grease) follow-the-crop food Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) Food and Drug Administration (FDA) food and fuel food policy food prices food processing waste food safety food security food vs biomaterials/bioplastics food vs fuel food waste for forage forage sorghum forecasts foreign oil Foreign Policy forest Forest Biomass for Energy forest biotechnology forest residue/waste Forest resources Forest Service forestry forklifts Formate formic acid fossil carbon fossil fuel Frace fracking fractionation fragrance France franchise fraud free fatty acids (FFA) Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) freight/cargo French French Guiana fructose fruit FT-SKA fuel fuel additives fuel cell electric vehicle (FCEV) fuel cells fuel economy fuel efficiency fuel injection fuel mixtures fuel molecules fuel oil fuel performance fuel prices Fuel Quality Directive (FQD) fuel registration Fuel Retailers fuel testing fuel transportation fuel use fuel wholesaler fully burdened cost fund funding fungus/fungi Furanics furfural fusel oils Future Farmers of America (FFA) Gabon gallium Gambia games gas prices gas tax/highway user fee gas-to-liquid (GTL) gasification gasoline gasoline baseline gasoline consumption gasoline mandate gasoline markets gasoline price gasoline-range hydrocarbons Gemany General Services Administration general waiver authority generators genetically engineered yeast cells genetically enhanced microbes genetically modified organism (GMO) genome Georgia Georgia (country) geothermal German Germany Gerrmany Ghana GHG (Greenhouse Gas Emissions) GHG (Greenhouse Gas Emissions) Intensity giant cane giant kelp Giant King Grass Giant Reed/Arundo GIS glass tubing gliricidia sepium global rebound effect Global South global warming global warming potential glucose glycerin glycerin standards glycerol goats gorse Governance practices) Government Accountability Office (GAO) government investment government resources government subsidies grain sorghum/milo grain speculators grains GRAND-AM grants grants-local grants-state grapefruit grapes graphene graphite GRAS (generally regarded as safe) Grasses grasses grasshoppers grease Great Green Fleet Great Lakes Greece green bonds green chemistry Green Deal EU green economy green house facility Green Jobs Green New Deal Green Racing Green Recovery green/black economy Greenland GREET Greenhouse Gases Regulated Emissions and Energy Use in Transportation Model Grenada gribble growers gua beans Guam guar Guatemala guayule Guerbet reaction Guinea Guinea Bissau Gulf states gulmohar Gumweed (grindelia squarosa) Guyana GWP gypsum h Haiti Halophytes harvest site processing harvesting Hawai'i hay hazardous waste hazelnut HBIIP Higher Blends Infrastructure Incentive Program HDCJ HDO-SAK (hydro deoxygenated synthetic aromatic kerosene) health health benefits health effects heat of combustion heat of vaporization heat-tolerance heather heating oil/fuel Heavy Duty Truck Rule heavy duty vehicles (HDV) hedging HEFA (Hydro-processed esters and fatty acids) HEFA50 helicopters hemicellulace enzymes hemicellulose hemicellulosic sugars Hemp hemp oil hemp seed herb hexanol HFO (Heavy Residual Fuel Oil) hibiscus high blend renewable fuels (HBRF) High Hydrogen Content Synthetic Paraffinic Kerosene (HHC-SPK) High Octane Fuel (HOF) High Octane Fuel Standard High Octane Gasoline (HOG) high octane low carbon (HOLC) fuel High Octane Vehicles (HOV) high performance regular high school project high sulphur fuel oil (HSFO) high-octane/low-carbon (HOLC) liquid fuels Highway Bill highway rights-of-way Highway Trust Fund history hog farmers hombayniya homogeneous-charge compression-ignition Honduras honey locust Hong Kong Honge tree nuts hops horticulture Housing and Urban Development (HUD) HPF (High Performance Fuels) HRJ (Hydrotreated Renewable Jet) human rights Hungary Hurricane Sandy HVO (Hydrotreated vegetable oil) HVO100 HVO20 HVO30 Hybrid aircraft hybrid buses hybrid locomotive hybrid ships hybrids hydrocarbon fuels Hydrocarbon-Hydroprocesed Esters and Fatty Acids (HC-HEFA-SPK) hydrodeoxygenation hydrodiesel hydrofaction hydroformylation hydrogen aircraft hydrogen carrier hydrogen combustion engines hydrogen fuel cells hydrogen leaks hydrogen pipeline hydrogen price hydrogen pumps/fueling stations hydrogen tax credit hydrogen terminal Hydrogen/Renewable Hydrogen Hydrogen/Renewable Hydrogen Price hydrogenase hydrogenation hydrogenation-derived renewable diesel (HDRD) hydrogenolysis hydropower Hydroprocessed fermented sugars to synthetic isoparaffins (HFS-SIP) hydroprocessing hydropyrolysis hydrothermal carbonization hydrothermal gasification hydrothermal liquefaction (HTL) hydrothermal treatment Hydrotreated renewable diesel (HRD) hydrotreating hydrotreatment hydrous ethanol hypoxia zone Iceland Idaho Illinois Illiois illuppai ILUC (Indirect/Induced Land Use Change) import/export incinerator ash India Indian beech tree Indian grass Indiana indirect effects indirect emissions indirect fuel use change indium Indonesia industrial burners industrial ethanol industrial gases industrial sugars industrial waste industrial waste gases IndyCar infographic Infrastructure inhibitors innovation insecticide/pesticide insects insurance integrated biorefineries integrated food/energy systems intellectual property Inter-American Development Bank inter-crop interactive map intercropping internal combustion engine (ICE) internal combustion engine (ICE)/gasoline engine ban International international balance of payments International Council on Clean Transportation (ICCT) International Energy Agency (IEA) International Maritime Organization (IMO) International Monetary Fund (IMF) International Organization for Standardization (ISO) International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) International Sustainability and Carbon Certification model(ISCC) International Trade International Trade Administration International Trade Commission Internships inulin invasive species Investing investment tax credit Invvesting ionic liquids Iowa IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Iran Iraq Ireland iridium iron iron oxide IRS (Internal Revenue Service) IS 1460 ISO 8217 (marine distillate fuel standard) ISO 9000 isobutanol isobutanol price isobutanol pump price isobutene isobutylene isomerisation isooctane isooctene isopropanol Israel Italy Ivory Coast JAA jackfruit Jamaica jamelão Japan jatobá Jatropha Jersey Jerusalem artichoke jet jet A Jet A-1 jet B Jetfuel (Sustainable Aviation Fuel (SAF)) Jimmy Carter Jobs Joint Office of Energy and Transportation jojoba Jordan JP-10 JP-4 JP-5/NATO F-44 JP-8/NATO F-34 juniper Just A MInute Just Transition jute K-12 Education Kabakanjagala kalanchoe kamani Kans grass Kansas Karanja Kazakhstan kelp Kemiri Sunan kenaf Kentucky Kenya kerosene ketones kinggrass Kiribati knotweed Knowledge Discovery Framework Korea Kosovo kudzu kukui nut kulpa kusum Kuwait Kygryzstan labels labor policy Labrador lactic acid lactose Lake County lamp oil land ownership land prices land rights land subsidence land tenure land transfer land use land use change land use policy landfill methane Landfills landscape Laos Latin America Latvia LCFS (Low Carbon Fuel Standard) lead Leadtree leaf ant Lebanon lecithin legislation Legislation-Federal Legislation-State lemna lend-lease Lesotho lesquerella leucaena levulinic acid Liberia Libya licensing lichens life cycle analysis (LCA) light rail lignin Lignin Ethanol Oil (LEO) Lignocellulosic Biofuel lignocellulosic sugars lime Lipid liquefaction liquid liquid petroleum gas (LPG) liquid transportation fuels liquidation Liquified Biogas (LBG) Liquified Biogas (LBG) pumps liquified biomethane (LBM) Liquified Natural Gas (LNG) lithium Lithuania litigation Litigation-Federal Litigation-State livestock loan guarantees loans lobbying loblolly pine locomotives lodgepole pine logistics long-term contracts Louis Louisiana low c low carbon emissions low carbon octane standard (LCOS) Low Emission Vehicle Standards (LEV) low sulfur diesel low sulfur fuel low sulfur marine fuel lubricants lumber mill Luxembourg lysis M100 M15 M3 M50 ma macadamia macauba Macedonia machine learning machinery macororo Madagascar magnesium mahua Maine Malawi Malaysia Maldives Mali mallees Malta Malyasia mamona management changes mandates mangaba manganese mango mangrove Manitoba mannose manure maple maps marginal land marine algae Marine Corps Marine Diesel Oil (MDO) Marine Fuel Oil Marine Gas Oil (MGO) Marine/Maritime Bio and Renewable/Sustainable Fuel (SMF) Marine/Maritime Bio and Renewable/Sustainable Fuel (SMF) price Marine/Maritime Bio and Renewable/Sustainable Fuel Terminal Marine/maritime renewable fuel terminal/bunkering market forces market share marketing markets/sales Mars Marshall Islands Maryland Masdar Institute mass balance standard Massachusetts Master Limited Partnership (MLP) Mauritania Mauritius Mazda meat mechanics training medical waste MEEC membranes mergers and acquisitions mesquite methanation methane leaks methane/biomethane methanization methanol benefits methanol fuel cells methanol price Methanol-to-Jet (MTJ-SPK) Methanol/Biomethanol/Renewable Methanol methylbutenol Mexico Michelin GreenX Challenge Michigan micro-crop microalgae microbial electrosynthesis microbiology microorganisms/microbes microwave Mid-Atlantic Middle East Midwest mileage military military policy military reserves military specifications military strategic flexibility military strategy military use of biofuels milk permeate millennium fruit millet millettia pinnata milo stover mineralization minerals mining Minn Minnesota miscanthus misfueling missile fuel Mississippi Missouri mixed prarie mobile refinery modeling modular molasses mold molinia molybdenum MON (Motor Octane Number) Monaco Mongolia mongongo monitoring/measuring reporting verifiction (MRV) Montana Montenegro moose morama Moringa tree Morocco morula motorcycles motors MOVES (motor vehicle emissions simulator) modeling system MOVES2014 MOVES3 (MOtor Vehicle Emission Simulator model) Mozambique MSW (Municipal Solid Waste) MTBE (Methyl tert-butyl ether) multi-fuel municipal/city mushroom mushroom substrate mustard seed mvr Myanmar n-butanol n-butene nahar Namibia nano nano particles nanocatalysts nanocellulose nanomaterials naphtha/bionaphtha/renewable naphtha naphthene NASCAR National 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Zealand Newfoundland Newfoundland and Labrador next generation biofuels next generation vehicles NHRA drag racing Nicaragua nickel Niger Nigeria nipa sap nitrate leaching nitrates nitrogen Nitrogen fertiliser nitrogen starvation nitrous oxide (N2O) Niue NO2 noodles nopal North Africa North America North Carolina North Dakota North Korea Northeast northern catalpa Northern Ireland Northern Territory Northwest Territories Norwary Norway Nova Scotia NOx (nitrogen oxides) noxious weeds nuclear Nunavut nut shells nutraceuticals nutrient credit trading nutrient management nutrients nutrition oak oat hulls oat straw oats Obligated Parties/Point of Obligation (PoO) ocean-based energy Oceania octane octane price/value octanol Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Office of Management and Budget (OMB) Office of Science and Technology Policy Office of Science and Technology Policy (OSTP) Office of Science Technology and Policy (OSTP) Offices of Inspector Generals offtake agreements Ohio oil oil embargo oil exploration oil monopoly oil p oil price parity oil prices oil production oil refineries oil replacement oil sands oil seed oil seed crops oil speculators oil spill oil subsidies oil taxes oil/gas terminals Oils Oklahoma olefins oligomerization olive cake olive oil olive pits olive pomace olive water olives Oman Omega-3s on-farm algae production on-farm ammonia production on-farm biodiesel on-farm ethanol production on-farm natural gas production on-farm processing on-site hydrogen production one p one pound waiver onion waste online courses Ontaio Ontario OPEC (Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries) open fuel standard open pond opportunity zones optimized flex fuel vehicles orange peel orchard grass orchard prunings Oregon organic solar cells Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) osage orange OSHA Overseas Private Investment Corporation overview overview/survey course owa oxygen oxygenate ozone Pakistan Palau palm palm 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pine nut pineapple Pineapple leaf pinion Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Admin (PHMSA) pipelines Pistacia chinensis PLA plant cell research plant cell walls plant oil plastic plastic-to-jet platinum Plug-in Flex Fuel Hybrid Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle (PHEV) plume grass Poand podcasts Poland poli Policy politics pollinators pollution pollution control polyethylene polyfuel polymer polymerization polysaccharides pomace pomegranates pongamia pongamia pinnata poplar poppy population control Portable refinery Portugal poster sessions potamogeton potassium potato poultry litter/waste power power-to-x/gas/liquid prairie grasses pre-processing precision farming/agriculture precursors/biointermediates premium gasoline Pretreatment pretreatment equipment price price of water prickly pear Prince Edward Island process flow diagram producer tax credit Production tax credit productivity project insurance propagating Propane/Biopropane/Renewable Propane propane/renewable propane pumps propanol property insurance propylene protectionism protein protests proton exchange membrane (PEM) public comments public health policy Puerto Rico pulp Pulp/Paper Mill pump retrofit kit pumps/fueling station pungam Punnai tree pyrolysis pyrolytic liquefaction Q-RIN QAP Qatar quality assurance Quality Assurance Plans (QAPs) quality improvement quantum dots Quebec Queensland quote of the week r R Factor R100/RD100 R33 R5 R95B5/RD95B5 R99/RD99 rabbits race radiata pine radish leaves Rahal Letterman Lanigan Racing railroad rain tree rainforest ranchers RAND rare earth metal/critical minerals RD10 RD100 RD20 RD3 RD30 RD40 RD50 RD55 RD80 RD80B20 RD99 reclaimed mine lands recycled oil recycled plastics recycling red algae redcedar Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation Refined Bleached Deodorized Palm Oil (RBDPO) refineries reforestation Reformate regenerative braking regenerative farming Regional Conservation Partnership Program (RCPP) Regulated Emissions regulations Regulations-Federal Regulations-State Regulatory Enhancement Growth Support (REGS) Reid vapor pressure (RVP) remediation remediation rice straw Renewable Chemical renewable chemical producer tax incentive renewable chemical production tax credit renewable diesel pipelines Renewable Diesel Production renewable diesel pumps renewable diesel tax credit renewable diesel terminal Renewable Diesel/Green Diesel price Renewable Diesel/Green Diesel/HVO/Paraffinic Diesel Renewable Energy Renewable Energy Directive (RED/RED II/RED III) Renewable Energy Standard Renewable Energy to Fuels through Utilization of Energy-Dense Liquids (REFUEL) renewable fuel renewable fuel oil (RFO) Renewable Fuel Standard (RFS and RFS2) Renewable Fuel Standard (RFS2) revisions/repeal Renewable Fuels Directive (EU) renewable fuels of non-biological origin (RFNBO) renewable gasoline blendstock renewable marine diesel Renewable Natural Gas (RNG) Renewable Natural Gas (RNG) price Renewable Natural Gas (RNG) pumps 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gas shale oil shark oil sheep shellfish shipping shipping containers shipworm siam weed Sierra Leone silage silica Silphie/cup plant/Indian cup silver silver maple simarouba Singapore Singpore sisal SK slash Slovakia Slovakia/Slovak Republic Slovenia sludge Small Business Administration Small Business Innovatin Research (SBIR) small engines small refinery exemption (SRE) smog smokestack soap soapstock Social social benefit investing social cost social value social venture Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) soi soil soil amendments soil carbon soil health soil microbial biomass solar energy solar energy-to-chemical conversion solar fuel solar thermochemical hydrogen (STCH) solaris Solid Oxide Electrolyzer Cell (SOEC) solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) Solomon Islands Solutions solvent liquefaction Somalia soot sorghum sorghum oil sorghum stover South Africa South America South Australia South Carolina South Dakota South Korea South Pacific South Sudan Southeast Asia Southern Africa Soviet 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