Biogas in Europe: Current Situation and Perspectives

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March 04, 2016

by Dan Quadros* (Advanced Biofuels USA)  This article is the result of a technical trip to Germany and the UK to participate in strategic meetings and visit labs; to attend seminars, an expo, a short course and a symposium.  Posted after the article are two interviews with important researchers in this area: Professor Hans Oechsner of the State Institute of Agricultural Engineering and Bioenergy and Dr. Michael Köttner from IBBK – Internacionales Biogas & Bioenergy Kompetenzzentrum.

Danilo Gusmao at the AD adn BIOGAS expo Danilo Gusmao at the AD and BIOGAS expo in the UK

To be more didactic, the article is in three parts:

  • Part I: An overview of biogas in Europe, using available literature and Internet sources to describe the importance and possibilities of biogas plants on the old continent;
  • Part II: Personal experiences, which describe the events in which I participated and my personal feelings about the theme; and
  • Part III: Final thoughts.

Part I: Biogas in Europe

Biogas is a renewable energy source that is technically fully established, producing heat, steam, electricity and vehicle fuel. It is produced during anaerobic digestion (AD) of organic substrates, such as manure, sewage sludge, the organic fractions of household and industry waste, as well as of energy crops.

It is produced in large scale digesters found primarily in industrial countries for sewage sludge treatment and stabilization purposes, as well as in small scale digesters on individual farms. Biogas is also produced during anaerobic degradation in landfills and it is then referred to as landfill gas.

The interest in biogas has increased due to global efforts to displace fossil fuels used for energy production and due to the necessity of finding environmentally sustainable solutions for the treatment and recycling of animal manure and organic wastes. The digestate, the product obtained after the treatment of organic matter, is a source of nutrients and its application in agriculture has improved soil properties and crop yields.

In line with other biofuels, biogas from AD is an important part of the European transport and energy policy. As an affordable and CO2-neutral source of renewable energy, it offers the possibility of treating and recycling a wide range of agricultural residues and by-products in a sustainable and environmentally friendly way. At the same time, biogas brings along a number of socio-economic benefits for the economy, environment, society and security of energy supply.

Biogas is produced by bacteria through anaerobic digestion of organic substrates in the absence of oxygen. The chemical composition of raw biogas includes 50%-75% methane and 25%-50% carbon dioxide; with the rest composed of water vapour and traces of oxygen, nitrogen and hydrogen sulphide.

To allow injection of biogas into the natural gas grid or for use as a vehicle fuel, it must be upgraded. This means that carbon dioxide is removed so that the proportion of methane is increased to usually above 96% so that it meets the quality standards for natural gas.

Biogas is seen to be one of the key technologies both to reach EU member states' targets for renewable energies in 2020 and to meet their requirements within the European organic waste management directive.

Regulatory restrictions on waste management and the introduction of dedicated support schemes for renewable energies made the biogas sector a booming market in many European countries. Governments have set up incentive systems for paying for electricity (feed-in tariffs, green certificates, tenders). In a number of countries, the biogas market is stimulated by additional payments for the use of energy crops. They aim to promote the increase in renewable energy production, while the policy also enables farm holdings to reduce their energy dependency and diversify their incomes in the event of falling cereal, milk or meat prices. Other countries question the environmental soundness of using energy crops such as maize for methanization, preferring to convert already existing waste feedstock (European Biomass Association, AEBIOM and partners, 2012).

According to the European Biogas Association, there are more than 14,500 biogas plants in Europe and the number is still growing (Figure 1). Probably today the total energy generated is more than 8,000 MWe.

Figure 1 – Number of biogas plants according to country.  Source: EBA, http://european-biogas.eu/2014/12/16/4331/

In recent years, central European countries like Hungary, the Czech Republic, Slovakia and Poland increased by 18% the number of biogas plants in the region. Countries, such as the UK, France and Sweden, continue to develop on a steady rate. The Czech Republic and Cyprus already ceased support for biogas plants, while German and Austrian biogas plant operators are facing local caps.

Policy changes have been mainly responsible for stimulating or suppressing biogas initiatives. 

The main focus on biogas has been electricity (Figure 2) or electricity-heat conversion using big generators.

Gross Electricity Generation EU GWh Figure 2. Energy generation from biogas by country; Source: Ramanauskaite (2011)

Biogas can provide both base load and peak load electricity, which makes it a valuable option to balance fluctuating renewable energy systems (RES) energies, like wind power and photovoltaic power.

Some countries are supporting the utilization of combined heat and power production (CHP) due the efficiency of conversion.

The possibilities include biomethane production. In this way, biomethane can be injected in the gas grid or be used as vehicular fuel. Biomethane industry followed the growing trend of biogas, reaching almost 300 plants with a total production over 1,3 billion m3 (Figure 3).  With the increase of biomethane production, the continuing challenges are more investment in infrastructure and flex-fuel fleet to distribute and use the biomethane in the transportation system. The number of biomethane filling stations doubled in 2013 increasing the share of biomethane used in transport to 10% of the total biomethane produced in Europe.

Figure 3. Number of biomethane plants according to the country. Figure 3. Number of biomethane plants according to the country. Source: EBA, http://european-biogas.eu/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/Biomethane-graph-20131.png

Developing use of biomethane for transport is the focus of several projects such as BIOMASTER, MADEGASCAR, GasHighWay, BioGas Max, Urban Biogas, Green Gas Grids and Baltic Biogas Bus, which aim to increase its use in the market.

Biomethane for transport was also one of the options supported by the European Green Cars Initiative (a €5 billion PPP boost to the European car industry).

The most concrete reference for 2020 estimates are national renewable action plans which contain ambitions for the different renewable energy sources to meet the 20% RES in energy supply.

Biogas production is not separately reported, but is estimated in relation to the end use. Biogas-related electricity is estimated to be 64TWh (5.5 Milion tonne oil equivalent, Mtoe) in 2020. The gross production of heating and cooling from biogas is estimated at 5.1 Mtoe in 2020. The share of biogas in transport is approximately 6TWh (0.5 Mtoe). The total estimate for final energy consumption sourced from biogas in 2020 is more than 11 Mtoe. Adjusting for conversion efficiencies, this corresponds with approximately 28 Mtoe of primary biogas production (Foreest, 2012).

Calculations made recently by AEBIOM, the European Biomass Association, show a biogas potential of around 460 TWh (1,700 PJ) by 2020 in the EU-27. For this production, agricultural products (for instance energy crops and manure) and waste (biodegradable waste and sewage sludge) are to be used as substrates. Recovery of landfill gas is also included in this projection. The potential production would be equivalent to a third of the natural gas production in Europe and to 10% of the consumption.

The feedstock used for biogas production can impact not only the gas production, but also the perception of society regarding the technology. Germany relies on energy crops, mainly corn silage, to produce biogas. Other countries, with less arable land and/or concerns about food vs. fuel issues, have restricted feedstock to manure or other residues.

Different types of waste from society are of great importance when studying biogas systems. By utilizing organic waste for biogas production it could be regarded as a resource instead of as a problem, but this change in perception takes time, and large amounts of organic residues are still being disposed of in other ways, such as composting or landfilling.

In the EU regulation known as Regulation (EC) No 1774/2002 or the ABP-regulation, the proper handling of animal by-products is described, and the residues are categorized. This, in order to prevent the spreading of animal diseases, such as BSE and foot and mouth disease. The regulation affects biogas production since residues such as slaughterhouse waste, which is an energy-rich substrate, in many cases needs pre-treatment according to the directives.

Biogas production per se is not mentioned in the reformed CAP (Common Agricultural Policy). However, a key element of the new CAP is a rural development strategy, in which renewable energy production from agricultural products is advocated. Included in the CAP is an obligation for the Member States to set up agri-environment schemes, and farmers are then granted support.

Biogas production at ecological farms is an interesting field which could have great potential as it may bring about positive synergy effects (Engdahl, 2010).

 

Part II: Personal experiences

Dr. Hans Oechsner of the University of H Dr. Hans Oechsner in his lab at the University of Hohenheim

Germany

Everything started at the University of Hohenheim in Stuttgart, an agricultural-focused University founded around 200 years ago. There I met Professor Hans Oechsner in his advanced biogas research lab at the State Institute of Agricultural Engineering and Bioenergy.

The Institute is responsible for new research, advising farmers and industry partners, and other outreach activities about biomass. In the past, it focused on oil crops for biodiesel and biomass for electricity generation, while currently the focus is on biogas.

Prof. Oechsner has many years of experience in biogas production from agricultural feedstocks. His research lines include growing and breeding energy crops to obtain better varieties, and studying harvest time and storage methods to maximize biogas production. Also, he has researched a way to run biogas plants without manure. Normally, manure provides bacteria, buffer capacity and trace elements. He identified which trace elements and how much of them are necessary for higher biogas production. You can listen to my interview with him at the end of this article.

Germany is the most advanced country in biogas. The German government aims to reach a share of renewable energy sources of around 20% in the final energy consumption, and of 35% in the electricity sector by 2020. In addition to the proposed targets and measures for biogas electricity, the German government also aims to feed 6 billion Nm3 biomethane into the natural gas grid in 2020 (European Biomass Association, AEBIOM and partners, 2012).

According to Prof. Oechsner, today around 12% of energy and 20% electricity is from renewable sources; thus in the next 5 years there is a need to increase these amounts to reach Germany's goals. In the past 10 years there was a great desire, stimulated by special policy and regulations like Renewable Energy Law that permits farmers to produce electricity from biogas and obligates the owners of the energy grid to buy it for exclusive prices. This enables farmers to invest in this sector.

He explained that as Germany is a small country compared to America, they have to intensify production to get the most out of it. In this way, energy crops like corn have greater potential as a biogas feedstock than manure. Manure is used as single feedstock in small plants or mixed with wastes or energy crops in bigger plants. The average biogas plant in Germany has a size of 2,500 m3 and produces 450 KW. It can provide electricity for 500 to 700 houses.  Each hectare of corn in the form of silage, which is used to feed the digester day by day, produces biogas enough to be converted in 3 KW.  Today, around 10% of arable land is used to grow energy crops for biogas plants.

Germany is one of the strongest economies in Europe. In this context, buying electricity with more expensive fares, when compared with other sources, to reach the goals, has been seen as positive. With the feed-in law in Germany, the government introduced an excellent support scheme with fixed feed-in tariffs for different feedstocks and capacities, long-term payment periods and guaranteed grid access and regulated grid connection rules (European Biomass Association, AEBIOM and partners, 2012).

Prof. Oechsner highlighted the possibility of flexible production and storage of biogas.  Unlike other sources of energy, biogas can be stored for use when the demand for electricity is greatest; at peak demand or in certain times of the year when demand is greater. However, he mentioned that successful biogas systems are also possible due to the policy that guarantees high prices to the producers. Inevitably, this higher cost has been passed to the consumers. Thus, today the numbers of biogas plants stopped increasing and emphasis changed  to investment in efficiency. The solution, according to Prof. Oechsner, will be to unify all the renewable possibilities in an energetic mix. An example of this is the injection of hydrogen from photovoltaic into biogas systems, which is object of his research, along with injecting biomethane into the grid.

 

AD and BIOGAS Expo AD and BIOGAS Expo

United Kingdom

UK AD & Biogas

From Germany, I went to Birmingham for UK AD & Biogas 2015, a two day event full of seminars and a big expo.

In this big expo, specific to biogas, there were new technologies for biogas production and conversion. Biogas industry and academia showed cutting-edge research applicable to commercial scale.

Among many systems for biogas production, automated all-controlled systems give the perfect conditions for bacterial fermentation to occur. Once biogas is made, it should be filtered to remove harmful substances that could damage engines.

After that, big engines convert methane into electricity.

AD and BIOGAS expo AD and BIOGAS expo

Highlights of the expo were the many companies demonstrating different models of engines.

Once purified, biomethane can be used in fleets of cars and buses as were shown there.

As a researcher, I found interesting the lab digesters, which can simulate internal conditions of a commercial digester to test many substrates and treatments and the machines which process normal trash from supermarkets and separate the fermentable fraction from the recyclable part such as plastic and foil.

Using the organic fraction of urban wastes is a great approach for the biogas industry, solving two issues at the same time.

During the seminars, we were informed about the current situation of biogas production in the UK. New policies can stimulate this industry and regulation should be debated and modernized, mainly about digestate utilization. There are some concerns that because digestate comes from manure and urban waste its utilization on edible crops could cause health problems. More studies are necessary to modernize old thoughts.

One innovation was a space specific for personal consultation, putting together customers and consultants to discuss planning, technical points, and feasibility.

 

Biogas Operator and Planner course in Dundee Biogas Operator and Planner course at Abertay University in Dundee, Scotland

Biogas Operator  & Planner Course and University of Dundee, plus Visiting Labs

After that, I participated in a Biogas Operator & Planner course at Abertay University, Dundee, Scotland. The successful course was organized by the Renewable Energy Association (REA) and the International Biogas and Bioenergy Center of Competence (IBBK Fachgruppe Biogas). The participants were not just from UK, but from many places, such as Austria, Africa, Italy and elsewhere.

Despite staying just one day, I could participate in deep discussions with specialists and  trainee professionals for biogas plants establishment and management.

While there, I visited the biogas lab of the university, where interestingly seaweed has been studied as a new substrate for biogas.

 

Danilo Gusmao presenting in Scotland Danilo Gusmao presenting about small scale digesters in Aberdeen, Scotland

International Symposium on Energy Challenges and Mechanics

Finally, I went to Aberdeen, Scotland in order to participate in the 3rd International Symposium on Energy Challenges and Mechanics (ECM3) - towards a big picture. The symposium included the presence of delegates from 52 countries, mainly from UK, Germany, USA and Asia. It was not specificly about biogas as were the others, but biogas was included in some presentations.

My presentation was about small scale digesters for cooking and electricity generation in poor communities in developing countries.

 

Part III: Final considerations

Policies challenges

As is the case for most renewable energy sources, biogas production is still dependent on subsidies to attract investors and establish a substantial scale. On the EU level, there is no specific policy on biogas, but it is addressed in multiple policy documents and Directives that are related to renewable energies and bioenergy.

Biogas is included in three EU regulatory frameworks: the Renewable Energy Directive (2009/28/EC), the Directive on Waste Recycling and Recovery (2008/98/EC) and the Directive on Landfill (1999/31/EC).

The incentives schemes are subject to changes due to changing political climates or progressive modification by policy makers. Support programs have been closed or changed following, for example, a change of government or imposition of stricter application criteria. This creates a certain regulatory risk for investors and uncertainty with respect to the feasibility of renewable energy targets (Foreest, 2012).

The biogas industry is facing tremendous policy changes. The dramatic change which started with the German Renewable Energy Act EEG 2012 continues to hamper the industry. On the other hand, the biogas industry is increasing in the other parts of Europe – UK, Italy and Denmark, and we hope that the rest of Europe will follow these positive developments.

The  Renewable Energy Directive 2009/28/EC   is a sustainability scheme for energy uses of biomass and biogas other than biofuels, and to provide analysis on biofuel sustainability with respect to indirect land use change (iLUC). The iLUC corresponds to the carbon stock release from the conversion of natural land such as rainforest or grassland into cropland that is alleged to result from an increased production of biofuels/bioenergy in Europe.

For the transport sector, the current sustainability criteria aim at ensuring minimum greenhouse gas (GHG) savings when compared to fossil fuels as well as defining land criteria, e.g. avoid high biodiversity areas for raw material production.

The Waste Framework Directive 2008/98/EC sets criteria under which certain specified waste shall cease to be waste. This mechanism was introduced to further encourage recycling in the EU by creating legal certainty and a level playing field as well as removing unnecessary administrative burdens. There are proposals for the end of waste criteria.

Digestate is an excellent organic fertilizer which contains nearly all the nutrients that were in the feedstock used in the process. The EU wants to become sustainable and independent from foreign raw materials. Today, in some countries, there are a lack of regulation and safety concerns as well as misunderstanding about digestate advantages for agriculture.

This subject is very interesting, isn’t it? Are you thirsty for more information about it? You can hear more details from the experts in the interviews below.

Also, for additional information here is a list of useful links available which I have  thanks to the  European Biogas Association (EBA) website (http://european-biogas.eu):

 

Biogas

 

Biomethane

Digestate

Statistics

Maps of biogas plants

Map of biomethane plants

EU

 

References

Engdahl, K. Biogas policies, incentives and barriers - a survey of the strategies of three European countries. Master thesis. Department of Technology and Society Environmental and Energy Systems Studies. Lund University , SWEDEN.  2010. 60p. http://www.miljo.lth.se/svenska/internt/publikationer_internt/pdf-filer/exjobb%20imes%20Kristina%20Engdahl.pdf

European Biogas Association website http://european-biogas.eu

European Biomass Association, AEBIOM and partners. EU Handbook - Biogas Markets. 2012. http://www.crossborderbioenergy.eu/fileadmin/crossborder/Biogas_MarketHandbook.pdf

European Biofuels Technology Platform http://www.biofuelstp.eu/biogas.html

Foreest, F. Perspectives for Biogas in Europe. Oxford Institute for Energy Studies. 53p. 2012. http://www.oxfordenergy.org/wpcms/wp-content/uploads/2012/12/NG-70.pdf

Ramanauskaite, R. European Biogas Association. In: BiogasIN Project, High Level Conference Athens,Greece, 2011. http://www.biogasin.org/files/pdf/HLC_athens/03_R.Ramanauskaite_PresentationBiogasIN.pdf

Danilo G. de Quadros; André de P. M. Oliver; Ueliton Regis; Renata Valladares and Edivaldo de J. Ferreira; Technical and economic analysis of plug-flow anaerobic digester to take advantage of goat manure in smallholder farms  http://nscj.co.uk/ecm3/sessions/156_DaniloGdeQuadros.pdf

Interviews

To learn much more about biogas, listen to this exclusive Dan Quadros' interview with Dr. Hans Oechsner of Universität Hohenheim, discussing the history of anaerobic digestion in Germany and the future of biogas in the world.

 

1 – Could you summarize the main research lines of your lab?

2 – Could you tell us the history of anaerobic digestion in Germany?

3 – Why is Germany a leader on biogas production and utilization?

4 – What will be the future of biogas in the World?

 

 

Take the opportunity to understand the current situation of biogas in Europe with Dr. Michael Köttner, interviewed by Dan Quadros. Dr. Köttner is from IBBK – Internacionales Biogas & Bioenergy Kompetenzzentrum (http://ibbk.fachgruppe-biogas.de/index.php?id=1&L=1&id=151).

 

1 – What is the situation of biogas production in European countries nowadays?

2 – What is the importance of policies on biogas utilization?

3 – What is the potential of biomethane use in fleets?

 

*Former research scholar at University of Florida, Professor at Bahia State University, Brazil and Volunteer correspondent for Advanced Biofuels USA

 Photos by or courtesy of Dan Quadros

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(CBO) Connecticut Conservation Reserve Program (CRP) Conservation Stewardship Program (CSP) construction and demolition waste/debris consumer education contamination contest contrails conversion technology Cook Islands cook stoves cooking fuel cooperatives COP21 COP22 COP23 COP24 COP25 COP26 COP27 COP28 COP29 COP30 copper coppice cordgrass corn bran Corn cobs corn ethanol corn fiber corn growers corn harvest corn kernel corn meal corn oil corn oil/distillers corn oil (DCO) corn prices corn stalks corn stover corn supply corn surplus corn syrup corn-based products corn/maize Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) standards corporate social responsibility corrosion corruption CORSIA (Carbon Offsetting and Reduction Scheme for International Aviation) cosmetics Costa Rica cotton cotton seed hulls cotton seed oil cotton stalk cottonwood Council on Environmental Quality county cover crops cow rumen cracking Crambe crassulacean acid metabolism plants (CAM) crimes criteria pollutants Croatia crop crop insurance cropland croton crowdfunding crude oil Cuba cup plant cuphea currency/foreign exchange policy curriculum cusi cutworm caterpillars cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) cylindro Cyprus Czech Republic d D-3 (cellulosic) RINs D-4 (bio-based diesel) RINs d-5 D-5 (advanced biofuel) RINs D-6 (renewable fuel) RINs D-7 RINs (Cellulosic Diesel) D-8 (proposed) RINs D20 (20%DME) D5 (5%DME) dairy waste dandelion DARPA date kernel oil date palm date palm pits date palm waste Dates DDGS (distiller’s dried grains with solubles) dead zone decanol decision-support tool deep water drilling Defense Logistics Agency (DLA) Defense Production Act deficit definitions deforestation defossilization Dehydration Delaware DeltaWing demonstration demonstration scale/unit Denmark densify density Department of Agriculture (USDA) Department of Commerce Department of Defense (DOD) Department of Education Department of Energy (DOE) Department of Health and Human Services Department of Homeland Security Department of Justice Department of Labor Department of the Interior Department of Transportation (DOT) depolymerization depots dextrose dfdsffsfdfsf diatoms diesel Diesel Emissions Reduction Act (DERA) diesel fuel blendstock diesel prices Diesel R5 diesel with renewables diesel-range hydrocarbons diesel-to-biodiesel conversion diethyl ether digital Digital Biology diisobutylene (DIB) dilute acid hydrolysis pretreatment DIN 51605 DIN EN 15376 (Ethanol blending component) direct air capture direct injection direct ocean capture Direct Sugar to Hydrocarbon Conversion (DSHC) direct-to-fuel directed evolution dispense distillates distillation distilled biodiesel distilled palm methyl ester (DPME) distilleries distributed/centralized distribution distribution capacity distribution waiver diversification divestment DME/rDME (dimethyl ether)/renewable DME DMF (2.5-dimethylfuran) Dominican Republic double cropping drawdown Drones/Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAV) drop-in biofuels/hydrocarbons drought drought tolerant drought-resistant dry ice dual cropping Dubai duckweed e e-diesel e-LNG (synthetic/electro Liquified Natural Gas) e-methanol e-NG (synthetic natural gas) E. coli E0 E0 price E1 E10 E10 certification fuel E10 price E100 E100 conversion kit E11 E12 E13 E15 E15 price E15 pumps E2 E20 E20 price E20 pumps E22 E25 E25 pumps E27 E3 E30 E30 capable E30 certification fuel E30 optimized E30 price E30 pumps E35 E4 E40 E40 conversion kit E40 pumps E5 E5 price E50 E55 E6 E7 E70 diesel E75 E78 E8 E80 E85 E85 conversion kit E85 optimized engines E85 price E85 pumps E90 E92 E95 E97 E98 earthquakes East Africa Eastern Europe economic development Economic Development Administration economic modeling economic policy economics Ecosystems Services Ecuador ED7 (7% ethanol 93% diesel) ED95 education Education Series 3030 educational business private educational tour EERE efficiency egg shell Egypt El Salvador Electric aircraft Electric Car/Electric Vehicle (EV) electric car/Electric Vehicle (EV) Prices electric grid electricity electricity price electricity/power generation electricity/power transmission electrocatalysis electrochemical electrochemical cell electrofuels (e-fuels) electrofuels (e-fuels) prices electrolysis electrolytic cation exchange electromethanogenesis (ME) electrons Elephant grass/Napier grass elephants embargo eminent domain emissions emissions standards EN 15751 EN 15940 EN 16709 EN 228 EN 590 EN228 (standard pump gasoline) end user end-of-life Endangered Species Act (ESA) Energy Bill energy cane energy consumption energy crops energy density energy dominance energy grasses energy independence Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 (EISA) Energy Information Administration (US EIA) energy law energy policy energy prices energy reserves Energy Return on Energy Invested (EROEI or EROI) energy security Energy Security Trust energy storage enforcement engine Engine Development engine problems Engine/Fuel Co-optimization engineering England enhanced oil recovery (EOR) entrepreneur environment environmental impact study (EIS) environmental justice/socially inclusive environmental policy Environmental Quality Incentive Program (EQIP) Environmentalists Enzymatic enzymatic conversion enzymatic depolymerization enzymatic hydrolysis enzyme production enzyme recycling Enzyme solicitation enzymes EPA (Environmental Protection Agency) EPACT (Energy Policy Act) Equatorial Guinea equipment eRINs/electric pathway Eritrea erosion control EROWI (Energy Return on Water Invested) ESG (Environmental Social Governance) esterification Estonia ETBE (ethyl tert-butyl ether) etha ethane ethanol ethanol benefits ethanol blend wall ethanol blended diesel ED ethanol blends/ethanol flex fuels ethanol emissions ethanol ether diesel fuel ethanol fire ethanol fuel cells ethanol hybrid ethanol pipeline ethanol prices ethanol production ethanol pumps ethanol tax ethanol terminal ethanol to gas ethanol tolerance ethanol-fueled aircraft Ethanol-to-Gasoline (ETG) ethanol/bioethanol ethanol/diesel ethanol/methanol synthesis ethanol2G Ethiopia Ethiopian mustard ethyl levulinate (EL) ethylbenzene ethylene ets eucalyptus Euglena European Emissions Trading System (ETS) European Union (EU) eutrophication executive order executive order--state Extended Range Electric Vehicle (EREV) externalities extremophiles f F Factor F-24 F-34 F-76 (Marine Diesel) F-T FAEE FAEE (fatty acid ethyl esters) Fair trade False Claims Act FAME (Fatty Acid Methyl Ester) Farm Bill Farm Bureau farm equipment farm policy Farm to Fleet Farm to Fly farmers farming farnesane farnesene Fats fecal sludge Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC) Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) federal land Federal Railroad Administration Federal Reserve Bank Federal Trade Commission (FTC) Federal Transit Administration (FTA) feed Feed In Tariffs (FIT) feed prices Feedstock Flexibility Program for Bioenergy Producers feedstock logistics feedstock material feedstock prices feedstock storage feedstock terminal feedstock transportation Feedstocks fermentation ferry fertilizer fiber Fiji Financing Finland Fischer-Tropsch Synthetic Kerosene with Aromatics (FT-SKA) Fischer-Tropsch Synthetic Paraffinic Kerosene (FT-SPK) Fischer-Tropsch Synthetic Paraffinic Kerosene with Aromatics (FT-SPK/A) Fischer-Tropsch/FT fish feed fish oil fish waste fit for purpose Fixed Base Operator (FBO) flameleaf sumac flavors flax fleet turnover Fleets fleshings flex-fuel vehicles (FFV) flight tests Flightpath flixweed/tansy/herb-Sophia flood-prone soil Florida flue gas FOG (Fats/Oils/Grease) follow-the-crop food Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) Food and Drug Administration (FDA) food and fuel food policy food prices food processing waste food safety food security food vs biomaterials/bioplastics food vs fuel food waste for forage forage sorghum forecasts foreign oil Foreign Policy forest Forest Biomass for Energy forest biotechnology forest residue/waste Forest resources Forest Service forestry forklifts Formate formic acid fossil carbon fossil fuel Frace fracking fractionation fragrance France franchise fraud free fatty acids (FFA) Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) freight/cargo French French Guiana fructose fruit FT-SKA fuel fuel additives fuel cell electric vehicle (FCEV) fuel cells fuel economy fuel efficiency fuel injection fuel mixtures fuel molecules fuel oil fuel performance fuel prices Fuel Quality Directive (FQD) fuel registration Fuel Retailers fuel testing fuel transportation fuel use fuel wholesaler fully burdened cost fund funding fungus/fungi Furanics furfural fusel oils Future Farmers of America (FFA) Gabon gallium Gambia games gas prices gas tax/highway user fee gas-to-liquid (GTL) gasification gasoline gasoline baseline gasoline consumption gasoline mandate gasoline markets gasoline price gasoline-range hydrocarbons Gemany General Services Administration general waiver authority generators genetically engineered yeast cells genetically enhanced microbes genetically modified organism (GMO) genome Georgia Georgia (country) geothermal German Germany Gerrmany Ghana GHG (Greenhouse Gas Emissions) GHG (Greenhouse Gas Emissions) Intensity giant cane giant kelp Giant King Grass Giant Reed/Arundo GIS glass tubing gliricidia sepium global rebound effect Global South global warming global warming potential glucose glycerin glycerin standards glycerol goats gorse Governance practices) Government Accountability Office (GAO) government investment government resources government subsidies grain sorghum/milo grain speculators grains GRAND-AM grants grants-local grants-state grapefruit grapes graphene graphite GRAS (generally regarded as safe) Grasses grasses grasshoppers grease Great Green Fleet Great Lakes Greece green bonds green chemistry Green Deal EU green economy green house facility Green Jobs Green New Deal Green Racing Green Recovery green/black economy Greenland GREET Greenhouse Gases Regulated Emissions and Energy Use in Transportation Model Grenada gribble growers gua beans Guam guar Guatemala guayule Guerbet reaction Guinea Guinea Bissau Gulf states gulmohar Gumweed (grindelia squarosa) Guyana GWP gypsum h Haiti Halophytes harvest site processing harvesting Hawai'i hay hazardous waste hazelnut HBIIP Higher Blends Infrastructure Incentive Program HDCJ HDO-SAK (hydro deoxygenated synthetic aromatic kerosene) health health benefits health effects heat of combustion heat of vaporization heat-tolerance heather heating oil/fuel Heavy Duty Truck Rule heavy duty vehicles (HDV) hedging HEFA (Hydro-processed esters and fatty acids) HEFA50 helicopters hemicellulace enzymes hemicellulose hemicellulosic sugars Hemp hemp oil hemp seed herb hexanol HFO (Heavy Residual Fuel Oil) hibiscus high blend renewable fuels (HBRF) High Hydrogen Content Synthetic Paraffinic Kerosene (HHC-SPK) High Octane Fuel (HOF) High Octane Fuel Standard High Octane Gasoline (HOG) high octane low carbon (HOLC) fuel High Octane Vehicles (HOV) high performance regular high school project high sulphur fuel oil (HSFO) high-octane/low-carbon (HOLC) liquid fuels Highway Bill highway rights-of-way Highway Trust Fund history hog farmers hombayniya homogeneous-charge compression-ignition Honduras honey locust Hong Kong Honge tree nuts hops horticulture Housing and Urban Development (HUD) HPF (High Performance Fuels) HRJ (Hydrotreated Renewable Jet) human rights Hungary Hurricane Sandy HVO (Hydrotreated vegetable oil) HVO100 HVO20 HVO30 Hybrid aircraft hybrid buses hybrid locomotive hybrid ships hybrids hydrocarbon fuels Hydrocarbon-Hydroprocesed Esters and Fatty Acids (HC-HEFA-SPK) hydrodeoxygenation hydrodiesel hydrofaction hydroformylation hydrogen aircraft hydrogen carrier hydrogen combustion engines hydrogen fuel cells hydrogen leaks hydrogen pipeline hydrogen price hydrogen pumps/fueling stations hydrogen tax credit hydrogen terminal Hydrogen/Renewable Hydrogen Hydrogen/Renewable Hydrogen Price hydrogenase hydrogenation hydrogenation-derived renewable diesel (HDRD) hydrogenolysis hydropower Hydroprocessed fermented sugars to synthetic isoparaffins (HFS-SIP) hydroprocessing hydropyrolysis hydrothermal carbonization hydrothermal gasification hydrothermal liquefaction (HTL) hydrothermal treatment Hydrotreated renewable diesel (HRD) hydrotreating hydrotreatment hydrous ethanol hypoxia zone Iceland Idaho Illinois Illiois illuppai ILUC (Indirect/Induced Land Use Change) import/export incinerator ash India Indian beech tree Indian grass Indiana indirect effects indirect emissions indirect fuel use change indium Indonesia industrial burners industrial ethanol industrial gases industrial sugars industrial waste industrial waste gases IndyCar infographic Infrastructure inhibitors innovation insecticide/pesticide insects insurance integrated biorefineries integrated food/energy systems intellectual property Inter-American Development Bank inter-crop interactive map intercropping internal combustion engine (ICE) internal combustion engine (ICE)/gasoline engine ban International international balance of payments International Council on Clean Transportation (ICCT) International Energy Agency (IEA) International Maritime Organization (IMO) International Monetary Fund (IMF) International Organization for Standardization (ISO) International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) International Sustainability and Carbon Certification model(ISCC) International Trade International Trade Administration International Trade Commission Internships inulin invasive species Investing investment tax credit Invvesting ionic liquids Iowa IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Iran Iraq Ireland iridium iron iron oxide IRS (Internal Revenue Service) IS 1460 ISO 8217 (marine distillate fuel standard) ISO 9000 isobutanol isobutanol price isobutanol pump price isobutene isobutylene isomerisation isooctane isooctene isopropanol Israel Italy Ivory Coast JAA jackfruit Jamaica jamelão Japan jatobá Jatropha Jersey Jerusalem artichoke jet jet A Jet A-1 jet B Jetfuel (Sustainable Aviation Fuel (SAF)) Jimmy Carter Jobs Joint Office of Energy and Transportation jojoba Jordan JP-10 JP-4 JP-5/NATO F-44 JP-8/NATO F-34 juniper Just A MInute Just Transition jute K-12 Education Kabakanjagala kalanchoe kamani Kans grass Kansas Karanja Kazakhstan kelp Kemiri Sunan kenaf Kentucky Kenya kerosene ketones kinggrass Kiribati knotweed Knowledge Discovery Framework Korea Kosovo kudzu kukui nut kulpa kusum Kuwait Kygryzstan labels labor policy Labrador lactic acid lactose Lake County lamp oil land ownership land prices land rights land subsidence land tenure land transfer land use land use change land use policy landfill methane Landfills landscape Laos Latin America Latvia LCFS (Low Carbon Fuel Standard) lead Leadtree leaf ant Lebanon lecithin legislation Legislation-Federal Legislation-State lemna lend-lease Lesotho lesquerella leucaena levulinic acid Liberia Libya licensing lichens life cycle analysis (LCA) light rail lignin Lignin Ethanol Oil (LEO) Lignocellulosic Biofuel lignocellulosic sugars lime Lipid liquefaction liquid liquid petroleum gas (LPG) liquid transportation fuels liquidation Liquified Biogas (LBG) Liquified Biogas (LBG) pumps liquified biomethane (LBM) Liquified Natural Gas (LNG) lithium Lithuania litigation Litigation-Federal Litigation-State livestock loan guarantees loans lobbying loblolly pine locomotives lodgepole pine logistics long-term contracts Louis Louisiana low c low carbon emissions low carbon octane standard (LCOS) Low Emission Vehicle Standards (LEV) low sulfur diesel low sulfur fuel low sulfur marine fuel lubricants lumber mill Luxembourg lysis M100 M15 M3 M50 ma macadamia macauba Macedonia machine learning machinery macororo Madagascar magnesium mahua Maine Malawi Malaysia Maldives Mali mallees Malta Malyasia mamona 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microbiology microorganisms/microbes microwave Mid-Atlantic Middle East Midwest mileage military military policy military reserves military specifications military strategic flexibility military strategy military use of biofuels milk permeate millennium fruit millet millettia pinnata milo stover mineralization minerals mining Minn Minnesota miscanthus misfueling missile fuel Mississippi Missouri mixed prarie mobile refinery modeling modular molasses mold molinia molybdenum MON (Motor Octane Number) Monaco Mongolia mongongo monitoring/measuring reporting verifiction (MRV) Montana Montenegro moose morama Moringa tree Morocco morula motorcycles motors MOVES (motor vehicle emissions simulator) modeling system MOVES2014 MOVES3 (MOtor Vehicle Emission Simulator model) Mozambique MSW (Municipal Solid Waste) MTBE (Methyl tert-butyl ether) multi-fuel municipal/city mushroom mushroom substrate mustard seed mvr Myanmar n-butanol n-butene nahar Namibia nano nano particles nanocatalysts 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Nevada New Brunswick new fuel approval New Guinea New Hampshire New Jersey New Mexico New South Wales New York New Zealand Newfoundland Newfoundland and Labrador next generation biofuels next generation vehicles NHRA drag racing Nicaragua nickel Niger Nigeria nipa sap nitrate leaching nitrates nitrogen Nitrogen fertiliser nitrogen starvation nitrous oxide (N2O) Niue NO2 noodles nopal North Africa North America North Carolina North Dakota North Korea Northeast northern catalpa Northern Ireland Northern Territory Northwest Territories Norwary Norway Nova Scotia NOx (nitrogen oxides) noxious weeds nuclear Nunavut nut shells nutraceuticals nutrient credit trading nutrient management nutrients nutrition oak oat hulls oat straw oats Obligated Parties/Point of Obligation (PoO) ocean-based energy Oceania octane octane price/value octanol Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Office of Management and Budget (OMB) Office of Science and Technology Policy Office of Science and 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Private Investment Corporation overview overview/survey course owa oxygen oxygenate ozone Pakistan Palau palm palm biomass palm fatty acid distillate palm fiber palm fronds palm kernel palm kernel oil palm kernel shell palm oil Palm Oil Methyl Ester (PME) palm oil mill effluent (POME) palm oil prices palm trunk sap palm waste Paludiculture/peatland cultivation Panama pandas panic grass papaya paper Papua Indonesia Papua New Guinea paraffins Paraguay Paris Agreement parity partial waiver particulates pasture land Patent and Trademark Office (PTO) patents pathways Paulownia paulownia tree payments peach shell peaches peak oil peak oil demand peanuts/groundnuts peas pectin peela kaner pellet pellets Pennsylvania pennycress/stinkweed pentane pentanol pentose pequi perennial grains perennial grasses Performance permitting Peru pest-tolerance pesticide-tolerance pests pet food petition petroleum pharmaceuticals phase separation Philippines phosphorus photobioreactor photoelectrocatalysis 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RNG tax credit roadmap rocket fuel Romania RON (Research Octane Number) rosin rotation crops Roundtable on Sustainable Biomaterials (RSB) royalties RP-1 RTP (rapid thermal processing) rubber rubber seeds rumen ruminants rural development Rural Energy for America Program (REAP) Rural Energy Self-Sufficiency Initiative Rural Renewable Energy Pilot Program rushes Russia Russian olive rutabaga Rwanda ry rye Rye grass rye straw s saccharification SAF pipeline SAF10 SAF30 SAF40 SAFc (Sustainable Aviation Fuel certificates) Safer and Affordable Fuel Efficient Vehicles (SAFE) safety safflower sago pond weed SAIC sal tree Salicornia salt water salt-tolerant saltbush saltcedar Samoa Sanctions Santa Monica sardine oil Saskatchewan Saudi Arabia sawdust scale up Scandinavia scholarships/fellowships Science Advisory Board (SAB) Science Based Targets initiative (SBTi) Science Policy scooters Scotland scum sea level rise seaports seashore mallow seawater seaweed cultivation Seaweed/Macroalgae 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