Greening Gas: Conference of the European Biogas Association Presents Emerging Technologies for European Energy Transition in a Circular Economy

European Union (EU)Methane/BiogasOpinionsOriginal Writing, Opinions Advanced Biofuels USAOther Conferences/EventsPolicyPresentations
February 08, 2018

By Dan Quadros* (Advanced Biofuels USA) Antwerp, Belgium, is known for diamonds and fine chocolates. But what shined there a couple of weeks ago was the Conference of the European Biogas Association (EBA).

Danilo Gusmao at the European Biogas Association Conference

In my last article about biogas in Europe (advancedbiofuelsusa.info/biogas-in-europe-current-situation-and-perspectives/), I provide an overview to give us a better understanding of anaerobic digestion. Many statistics and useful links from EBA are cited.

From there to here, many things have changed. The long-term attractive contracts to supply green energy based on biogas are now restricted. In some countries, policies have already limited the utilization of energy crops. Actually, a gradual phase out of food-based biofuels to 7% in 2021 and 3.8% in 2030 is expected. Remember, some biogas plants use energy crops like corn to feed the system. Natural gas prices have fallen.

Despite these facts, the biogas sector bets on technology, increasing efficiency and using cheaper substrates.

The focus of the conference was “greening gas” in a circular economy. Biogas and biomethane (purified form of biogas) were presented as solutions to produce secure and renewable energy (electricity, heat, fuel), reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and develop rural areas.

WATCH VIDEO of interview with EBA President Jan Štambaský 

Circular Economy is an industrial system that promotes greater resource productivity and also reduces waste and pollution. It aims to keep products, components and materials at their highest utility and value. The European Commission (EC) adopted the Circular Economy Package which establishes a program of actions covering the whole product cycle. In this context, anaerobic digestion, as a link in the biological cycle, transforms waste to energy and valuable products (Biogas Action, 2017).

The EU set three key targets to ensure the EU meets its climate and energy targets for the year 2020 (https://ec.europa.eu/clima/policies/strategies/2020_en):

  • 20% cut in greenhouse gas emissions (from 1990 levels)
  • 20% of EU energy from renewables
  • 20% improvement in energy efficiency

EBA President Jan Štambaský welcomes conference attendees

In 2016, the EC published a formal proposal 1 to the EU Council and the European Parliament to recast Renewable Energy Directive (RED) 2009/28/EC2, which will expire at the end of 2020. The proposed new directive, called RED II, proposes a set of policy measures to achieve a 27% renewable energy share from energy consumed by electricity, heating and cooling, and transportation sectors, by 2030.

Regarding renewable energy for transportation, RED II would mandate that 6.8% of transportation fuels must derive from renewable sources, specifically advanced alternative fuels and renewable electricity. In addition, RED II proposes a sub-target of 3.6% blending for advanced biofuels (https://ec.europa.eu/energy/sites/ener/files/documents/1_en_act_part1_v7_1.pdf).

About RED, EBA recognizes the multiple contributions biomethane can make as a green gaseous fuel for lorries, buses and as marine fuel, as well as its complementary role with other renewable energy sources (RES) in the form of energy storage of electricity. Biomethane can strongly contribute with a potential production of almost 10% of the total projected natural gas consumption in 2030.

Biogas can be burned on-farm to generate electricity that is then exported to the grid. The marginal lifecycle GHGs of this farm-produced electricity ranges from -335 to 25 grams CO2 per kilowatt hour (kWh). By comparison, the marginal GHGs of electricity generated by fossil fuels in the European Union (EU) is 752 grams CO2 per kWh (Valli et al., 2017).

Biogas can also be upgraded to produce pipeline-quality biomethane, a direct substitute for natural gas. The marginal lifecycle GHGs of biomethane ranges from 10 to -36 grams CO2 per megajoule (MJ) while the corresponding figure for a conventional biogas plant is 27 grams CO2 per MJ. In comparison, natural gas in the EU produces 72 grams CO2 per MJ and marginal fossil fuel in the EU generates 115 grams CO2 per MJ (Valli et al., 2017).

To understand the definition of marginal lifecycle GHGs, the carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions reduction afforded by a demand-side intervention in the electricity system is typically assessed by means of an assumed grid emissions rate, which measures the CO2 intensity of electricity not used as a result of the intervention. This emissions rate is called the “marginal emissions factor” (Hawkes, 2010). The broad view of the process is considered in the life cycle assessments, which determines the environmental impacts of products, process or services, through their production, usage, and disposal.

Biomethane trade

Renewable gas has an important role as “green gas” in the European energy mix, focusing especially on biomethane.  “Green gas” could be obtained by gasification also. From more than 17 thousand biogas plants in Europe, around 500 upgrade biogas into biomethane. This number trends to go up rapidly. Gas suppliers are very interested in purchasing biomethane.

Several countries have already established its national tracking system, the biogas register. Biomethane trade predominantly takes place in the country of its production. Barriers are often created by the different national regulatory frameworks (Strauch et al., 2013).

Then, cross-border trade aspects were debated, such as multilateral agreements, technical standards and sustainable indexes. It is clear existing infrastructure of gas distribution must be used. 

Almost all member states have developed their own bioeconomy strategy. Differences in regulations create difficulties for multilateral trade agreements. Today, only bilateral agreements are working out. Trade-offs may be explained by high regulatory fragmentation and ineffective governance (Bartolini et al., 2017).  This makes regulating the transition towards a bio-based economy a complex task.

ERGaR (European Renewable Gas Registry), a non-profit organization, has an initiative that tries to establish a scheme for mass balancing of biomethane and other renewable gases distributed along the European gas network. According to them, there are three pillars of the cross-border biomethane administration:

  • European natural gas network (consisting of the transmission and distribution systems) treated as single logistical facility with regard to injected biomethane.
  • Mass balancing of injected and withdrawn biomethane consignments within the European natural gas network.
  • Sustainability verification (prior to grid injection) and cross-border transfer of sustainability claims.

The EBA recommends EU nations increase the use of biogas as a fuel for electricity production and for transport to avoid uncontrolled greenhouse gas emissions.

In the RED and REDII, there is a lack of specific targets regarding biogas and biomethane. Currently, France took a significant step towards sustainability, setting a target of 10% of the gas consumption as “green gas” in 2030.

Power-to-gas

In my previous article, I said that an advantage of biogas is as a way to store energy to feed the grid during peak hours. Biogas not only can store energy coming from anaerobic digestion, but also renewable electric energy can be transformed into storable methane via electrolysis and subsequent methanation. To understand the technical and economic aspects of the technologies involved in this process, I recommend the reading of the paper of Götz et al. (2016).

The great advantage of power-to-gas is to convert the excess power from renewable energies into synthetic methane. In this way, it decarbonises and brings many opportunities to energy intensive sectors such as mobility, heating or chemistry.

Gasification

Undoubtedly, anaerobic digestion is the most consolidated technology to green the gas. However, gasification is an alternative option for obtaining methane using low-value feedstocks.

Gasification is a complete thermal breakdown of the biomass particles into a combustible gas, volatiles and ash in an enclosed reactor (gasifier) in the presence of any externally supplied oxidizing agent. Gasification is an intermediate step between pyrolysis and combustion. It converts any material containing carbon into synthesis gas (syngas). The syngas can be burned to produce electricity or further processed to manufacture liquid fuels, substitute natural gas (SNG), hydrogen, or chemicals.

This pathway has a considerable advantage to make possible the utilization of hard digestible feedstocks for anaerobic digestion, such as forest residues, straw and solid municipal waste. Task 33, which is a working group of international experts created by the International Energy Agency (IEA) with the aim of promoting efficient thermal biomass gasification processes, is a good starting point to keep updated about this technology (http://task33.ieabioenergy.com/content/taks_description).

New market opportunities

The role of biomethane (CH4) as a building block for the chemical industry was revealed. To cover the entire demand of the chemical industry in 2050, will require 100 billion m3 of CH4. Currently, EBA estimates the production of only 1.5% of the amount that will be needed in 2050.When the boom will happen is unpredictable, but it will.

BASF's presentation covers role of renewable-based chemicals in the Circular Bioeconomy

The chemical industry does not buy CH4. The companies buy building blocks. First, what is a building block? From the chemical standpoint, building block is a molecule which can be converted to various secondary chemicals and intermediates, and, in turn, into a broad range of different downstream uses. There are two types of biobased chemical building blocks:

  • Drop-in biobased chemicals: As they are chemically identical to existing hydrocarbon-based products, their use can reduce financial and technological risks and promote faster access to markets for producers.
  • Novel biobased chemicals: they can be used to produce products that cannot be obtained through traditional chemical reactions and products that may offer unique and superior properties that are unattainable with fossil-based alternatives, such as biodegradability.

However, methane is currently so abundant that the petrochemical industry burns it in gas flares around the world. Biomethane cannot compete in price directly with non-renewable sources at this time. Of course, it has many environmental advantages, consequently big companies are interested in including renewables in their products in the name of sustainability.

Other market opportunities were discussed such as digestate utilization, methane utilization in the fertilizer industry, and large-scale new methods for biomethane upgrades.

Digestate is something I would like to see more often in biogas events, because it plays an incommensurable role in agriculture. It is an organic fertilizer safer than manure. It also can replace mineral fertilizers, recycle nutrients and improve soil microbiota. In addition, it is a way towards an organic, biodynamic and sustainable agriculture, when applied according to a crop’s specific nutrient requirements.

Biomethane in the transportation sector

Biomethane plants have increased rapidly in the past few years, and the numbers might grow even more in the next years. Biomethane as BioCNG (CNG, Compressed Natural Gas) and BioLNG (LNG, Liquefied Natural Gas) should be considered as near-term, realistic, technically approved available options for renewable fuels.

Volvo's presentation focused on biogas in the transportation sector

Renewable gas can provide a significant contribution to decarbonization. All CNG and LNG vehicles are ready to run on 100% renewable energy.

Three big companies of long distance heavy load haulers (Volvo, Iveco and Scania) had a marked presence at the event. Power, performance, autonomy, fuel efficiency and costs must be considered when a gas engine is developed. There are many options now available in the market. Furthermore, gas buses can effectively contribute to reduction of air pollution in big cities.

It is clear, these companies are talking about natural gas, and we are interested in biogas. We expect that transition to the renewable fuel will occur. For example, 20 years ago Sweden started with a fossil-based LNG bus fleet. Today 70% of those buses run on biogas.

For example, 1 L of diesel can be replaced by 0.72 kg of LNG. The fuel costs can be reduced up to 70%, compared to diesel.

The best reduction rate is in the UK, where diesel taxation considers the output of all harmful emissions. On the other hand, in many countries diesel is subsidized. Actually, Governments of 11 European nations are providing subsidies totaling more than U$110bn a year to fossil fuel industries, including diesel subsidies. (https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2017/sep/28/european-countries-spend-billions-a-year-on-fossil-fuel-subsidies-survey-shows).

A great example worthy of attention comes from Kalmar County, Sweden. The country has no natural gas extraction, limited access to pipelines and plenty of biomass. They recognized biogas as part of the solution. Fossil free county in 2030 and fossil free public transportation in 2020 are the targets set by Climate Commission, composed of the County Administrative Board, Regional Council, private and public organizations, and lead by politicians.

In 2014 Kalmar County Traffic was commissioned to procure public road transports for a new period. Biogas was prioritized. In the main routes and cities (60% of traffic), the only fuel is biogas, while for the inland routes there are the possibility for the utilization of five alternative fuels. It is expected the reduction of 50% of GHG emissions will increase costs by only 3-4%.      

More examples of successful biogas utilization in buses for public mobility can be found at: http://euinmyregion.blogactiv.eu/2016/07/04/biogas-buses-are-the-green-solution-for-cities/

References

Bartolini, F.; Gava, O.; Brunori, G. Biogas and EU's 2020 targets: Evidence from a regional case study in Italy. Energy Policy 109 (2017) 510–519.

Biogas Action. Circular Economy – a healthy transition driven also by Biogas. Available at: http://biogasaction.eu/circular-economy-a-healthy-transition-driven-also-by-biogas/ Accessed 01/31/18.

Götz, M.; Lefebvre, J.; Mörs, F. et al. Renewable Power-to-Gas: A technological and economic review. Renewable Energy 85 (2016) 1371-1390.

Hawkes, A.D. Estimating marginal CO2 emissions rates for national electricity systems. Energy Policy 38 (2010) 5977-5987.

Strauch, S.; Krassowski, J.; Singhal, A. Biomethane Guide for Decision Makers: Policy guide on biogas injection into the natural gas grid. Available at: http://www.greengasgrids.eu/fileadmin/greengas/media/Downloads/Documentation_from_the_GreenGasGrids_project/Biomethane_Guide_for_Decision_Makers.pdf Access 01/31/18.

Valle, L.; Rossi, L.; Fabbri, C. et al. Greenhouse gas emissions of electricity and biomethane produced using the Biogasdoneright™ system: four case studies from Italy. Biofuels, Bioprod. Bioref. 11:847–860 (2017); DOI: 10.1002/bbb

 

*Dan Quadros is a professor at Bahia State University in Brazil and a traveling correspondent for Advanced Biofuels USA.

Photos courtesy D. Quadros

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forecasts foreign oil Foreign Policy forest Forest Biomass for Energy forest biotechnology forest residue/waste Forest resources Forest Service forestry forklifts Formate formic acid fossil carbon fossil fuel Frace fracking fractionation fragrance France franchise fraud free fatty acids (FFA) Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) freight/cargo French French Guiana fructose fruit FT-SKA fuel fuel additives fuel cell electric vehicle (FCEV) fuel cells fuel economy fuel efficiency fuel injection fuel mixtures fuel molecules fuel oil fuel performance fuel prices Fuel Quality Directive (FQD) fuel registration Fuel Retailers fuel testing fuel transportation fuel use fuel wholesaler fully burdened cost fund funding fungus/fungi Furanics furfural fusel oils Future Farmers of America (FFA) Gabon gallium Gambia games gas prices gas tax/highway user fee gas-to-liquid (GTL) gasification gasoline gasoline baseline gasoline consumption gasoline mandate gasoline markets gasoline price gasoline-range hydrocarbons Gemany General Services Administration general waiver authority generators genetically engineered yeast cells genetically enhanced microbes genetically modified organism (GMO) genome Georgia Georgia (country) geothermal German Germany Gerrmany Ghana GHG (Greenhouse Gas Emissions) GHG (Greenhouse Gas Emissions) Intensity giant cane giant kelp Giant King Grass Giant Reed/Arundo GIS glass tubing gliricidia sepium global rebound effect Global South global warming global warming potential glucose glycerin glycerin standards glycerol goats gorse Governance practices) Government Accountability Office (GAO) government investment government resources government subsidies grain sorghum/milo grain speculators grains GRAND-AM grants grants-local grants-state grapefruit grapes graphene graphite GRAS (generally regarded as safe) Grasses grasses grasshoppers grease Great Green Fleet Great Lakes Greece green bonds green chemistry Green Deal EU green economy green house facility Green Jobs Green New Deal Green Racing Green Recovery green/black economy Greenland GREET Greenhouse Gases Regulated Emissions and Energy Use in Transportation Model Grenada gribble growers gua beans Guam guar Guatemala guayule Guerbet reaction Guinea Guinea Bissau Gulf states gulmohar Gumweed (grindelia squarosa) Guyana GWP gypsum h Haiti Halophytes harvest site processing harvesting Hawai'i hay hazardous waste hazelnut HBIIP Higher Blends Infrastructure Incentive Program HDCJ HDO-SAK (hydro deoxygenated synthetic aromatic kerosene) health health benefits health effects heat of combustion heat of vaporization heat-tolerance heather heating oil/fuel Heavy Duty Truck Rule heavy duty vehicles (HDV) hedging HEFA (Hydro-processed esters and fatty acids) HEFA50 helicopters hemicellulace enzymes hemicellulose hemicellulosic sugars Hemp hemp oil hemp seed herb hexanol HFO (Heavy Residual Fuel Oil) hibiscus high blend renewable fuels (HBRF) High Hydrogen Content Synthetic Paraffinic Kerosene (HHC-SPK) High Octane Fuel (HOF) High Octane Fuel Standard High Octane Gasoline (HOG) high octane low carbon (HOLC) fuel High Octane Vehicles (HOV) high performance regular high school project high sulphur fuel oil (HSFO) high-octane/low-carbon (HOLC) liquid fuels Highway Bill highway rights-of-way Highway Trust Fund history hog farmers hombayniya homogeneous-charge compression-ignition Honduras honey locust Hong Kong Honge tree nuts hops horticulture Housing and Urban Development (HUD) HPF (High Performance Fuels) HRJ (Hydrotreated Renewable Jet) human rights Hungary Hurricane Sandy HVO (Hydrotreated vegetable oil) HVO100 HVO20 HVO30 Hybrid aircraft hybrid buses hybrid locomotive hybrid ships hybrids hydrocarbon fuels Hydrocarbon-Hydroprocesed Esters and Fatty Acids (HC-HEFA-SPK) hydrodeoxygenation hydrodiesel hydrofaction hydroformylation hydrogen aircraft hydrogen carrier hydrogen combustion engines hydrogen fuel cells hydrogen leaks hydrogen pipeline hydrogen price hydrogen pumps/fueling stations hydrogen tax credit hydrogen terminal Hydrogen/Renewable Hydrogen Hydrogen/Renewable Hydrogen Price hydrogenase hydrogenation hydrogenation-derived renewable diesel (HDRD) hydrogenolysis hydropower Hydroprocessed fermented sugars to synthetic isoparaffins (HFS-SIP) hydroprocessing hydropyrolysis hydrothermal carbonization hydrothermal gasification hydrothermal liquefaction (HTL) hydrothermal treatment Hydrotreated renewable diesel (HRD) hydrotreating hydrotreatment hydrous ethanol hypoxia zone Iceland Idaho Illinois Illiois illuppai ILUC (Indirect/Induced Land Use Change) import/export incinerator ash India Indian beech tree Indian grass Indiana indirect effects indirect emissions indirect fuel use change indium Indonesia industrial burners industrial ethanol industrial gases industrial sugars industrial waste industrial waste gases IndyCar infographic Infrastructure inhibitors innovation insecticide/pesticide insects insurance integrated biorefineries integrated food/energy systems intellectual property Inter-American Development Bank inter-crop interactive map intercropping internal combustion engine (ICE) internal combustion engine (ICE)/gasoline engine ban International international balance of payments International Council on Clean Transportation (ICCT) International Energy Agency (IEA) International Maritime Organization (IMO) International Monetary Fund (IMF) International Organization for Standardization (ISO) International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) International Sustainability and Carbon Certification model(ISCC) International Trade International Trade Administration International Trade Commission Internships inulin invasive species Investing investment tax credit Invvesting ionic liquids Iowa IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Iran Iraq Ireland iridium iron iron oxide IRS (Internal Revenue Service) IS 1460 ISO 8217 (marine distillate fuel standard) ISO 9000 isobutanol isobutanol price isobutanol pump price isobutene isobutylene isomerisation isooctane isooctene isopropanol Israel Italy Ivory Coast JAA jackfruit Jamaica jamelão Japan jatobá Jatropha Jersey Jerusalem artichoke jet jet A Jet A-1 jet B Jetfuel (Sustainable Aviation Fuel (SAF)) Jimmy Carter Jobs Joint Office of Energy and Transportation jojoba Jordan JP-10 JP-4 JP-5/NATO F-44 JP-8/NATO F-34 juniper Just A MInute Just Transition jute K-12 Education Kabakanjagala kalanchoe kamani Kans grass Kansas Karanja Kazakhstan kelp Kemiri Sunan kenaf Kentucky Kenya kerosene ketones kinggrass Kiribati knotweed Knowledge Discovery Framework Korea Kosovo kudzu kukui nut kulpa kusum Kuwait Kygryzstan labels labor policy Labrador lactic acid lactose Lake County lamp oil land ownership land prices land rights land subsidence land tenure land transfer land use land use change land use policy landfill methane Landfills landscape Laos Latin America Latvia LCFS (Low Carbon Fuel Standard) lead Leadtree leaf ant Lebanon lecithin legislation Legislation-Federal 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microbiology microorganisms/microbes microwave Mid-Atlantic Middle East Midwest mileage military military policy military reserves military specifications military strategic flexibility military strategy military use of biofuels milk permeate millennium fruit millet millettia pinnata milo stover mineralization minerals mining Minn Minnesota miscanthus misfueling missile fuel Mississippi Missouri mixed prarie mobile refinery modeling modular molasses mold molinia molybdenum MON (Motor Octane Number) Monaco Mongolia mongongo monitoring/measuring reporting verifiction (MRV) Montana Montenegro moose morama Moringa tree Morocco morula motorcycles motors MOVES (motor vehicle emissions simulator) modeling system MOVES2014 MOVES3 (MOtor Vehicle Emission Simulator model) Mozambique MSW (Municipal Solid Waste) MTBE (Methyl tert-butyl ether) multi-fuel municipal/city mushroom mushroom substrate mustard seed mvr Myanmar n-butanol n-butene nahar Namibia nano nano particles nanocatalysts 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Nevada New Brunswick new fuel approval New Guinea New Hampshire New Jersey New Mexico New South Wales New York New Zealand Newfoundland Newfoundland and Labrador next generation biofuels next generation vehicles NHRA drag racing Nicaragua nickel Niger Nigeria nipa sap nitrate leaching nitrates nitrogen Nitrogen fertiliser nitrogen starvation nitrous oxide (N2O) Niue NO2 noodles nopal North Africa North America North Carolina North Dakota North Korea Northeast northern catalpa Northern Ireland Northern Territory Northwest Territories Norwary Norway Nova Scotia NOx (nitrogen oxides) noxious weeds nuclear Nunavut nut shells nutraceuticals nutrient credit trading nutrient management nutrients nutrition oak oat hulls oat straw oats Obligated Parties/Point of Obligation (PoO) ocean-based energy Oceania octane octane price/value octanol Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Office of Management and Budget (OMB) Office of Science and Technology Policy Office of Science and Technology Policy (OSTP) Office of Science Technology and Policy (OSTP) Offices of Inspector Generals offtake agreements Ohio oil oil embargo oil exploration oil monopoly oil p oil price parity oil prices oil production oil refineries oil replacement oil sands oil seed oil seed crops oil speculators oil spill oil subsidies oil taxes oil/gas terminals Oils Oklahoma olefins oligomerization olive cake olive oil olive pits olive pomace olive water olives Oman Omega-3s on-farm algae production on-farm ammonia production on-farm biodiesel on-farm ethanol production on-farm natural gas production on-farm processing on-site hydrogen production one p one pound waiver onion waste online courses Ontaio Ontario OPEC (Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries) open fuel standard open pond opportunity zones optimized flex fuel vehicles orange peel orchard grass orchard prunings Oregon organic solar cells Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) osage orange OSHA Overseas Private Investment Corporation overview overview/survey course owa oxygen oxygenate ozone Pakistan Palau palm palm biomass palm fatty acid distillate palm fiber palm fronds palm kernel palm kernel oil palm kernel shell palm oil Palm Oil Methyl Ester (PME) palm oil mill effluent (POME) palm oil prices palm trunk sap palm waste Paludiculture/peatland cultivation Panama pandas panic grass papaya paper Papua Indonesia Papua New Guinea paraffins Paraguay Paris Agreement parity partial waiver particulates pasture land Patent and Trademark Office (PTO) patents pathways Paulownia paulownia tree payments peach shell peaches peak oil peak oil demand peanuts/groundnuts peas pectin peela kaner pellet pellets Pennsylvania pennycress/stinkweed pentane pentanol pentose pequi perennial grains perennial grasses Performance permitting Peru pest-tolerance pesticide-tolerance pests pet food petition petroleum pharmaceuticals phase separation Philippines phosphorus photobioreactor photoelectrocatalysis photoelectrochemical photolysis photosynthesis phragmites pigeon pea pilot pilot scale pine pine beetle pine needles pine nut pineapple Pineapple leaf pinion Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Admin (PHMSA) pipelines Pistacia chinensis PLA plant cell research plant cell walls plant oil plastic plastic-to-jet platinum Plug-in Flex Fuel Hybrid Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle (PHEV) plume grass Poand podcasts Poland poli Policy politics pollinators pollution pollution control polyethylene polyfuel polymer polymerization polysaccharides pomace pomegranates pongamia pongamia pinnata poplar poppy population control Portable refinery Portugal poster sessions potamogeton potassium potato poultry litter/waste power power-to-x/gas/liquid prairie grasses pre-processing precision farming/agriculture precursors/biointermediates premium gasoline Pretreatment pretreatment equipment price price of water prickly pear Prince Edward Island process flow diagram producer tax credit Production tax 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RNG tax credit roadmap rocket fuel Romania RON (Research Octane Number) rosin rotation crops Roundtable on Sustainable Biomaterials (RSB) royalties RP-1 RTP (rapid thermal processing) rubber rubber seeds rumen ruminants rural development Rural Energy for America Program (REAP) Rural Energy Self-Sufficiency Initiative Rural Renewable Energy Pilot Program rushes Russia Russian olive rutabaga Rwanda ry rye Rye grass rye straw s saccharification SAF pipeline SAF10 SAF30 SAF40 SAFc (Sustainable Aviation Fuel certificates) Safer and Affordable Fuel Efficient Vehicles (SAFE) safety safflower sago pond weed SAIC sal tree Salicornia salt water salt-tolerant saltbush saltcedar Samoa Sanctions Santa Monica sardine oil Saskatchewan Saudi Arabia sawdust scale up Scandinavia scholarships/fellowships Science Advisory Board (SAB) Science Based Targets initiative (SBTi) Science Policy scooters Scotland scum sea level rise seaports seashore mallow seawater seaweed cultivation Seaweed/Macroalgae second-generation biofuel income tax credit Section 526 Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) seed husks seed-to-wheel Senegal Serbia sesame sewage Seychelles shale shale gas shale oil shark oil sheep shellfish shipping shipping containers shipworm siam weed Sierra Leone silage silica Silphie/cup plant/Indian cup silver silver maple simarouba Singapore Singpore sisal SK slash Slovakia Slovakia/Slovak Republic Slovenia sludge Small Business Administration Small Business Innovatin Research (SBIR) Small Business Technology Transfer (STTR) Program small engines small refinery exemption (SRE) smog smokestack soap soapstock Social social benefit investing social cost social value social venture Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) soi soil soil amendments soil carbon soil health soil microbial biomass solar energy solar energy-to-chemical conversion solar fuel solar thermochemical hydrogen (STCH) solaris Solid Oxide Electrolyzer Cell (SOEC) solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) Solomon Islands 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