Can We Avoid Another Cataclysmic Meltdown Of The Global Financial System?

Business News/AnalysisFederal Agency/Executive BranchFunding/Financing/InvestingOpinionsPolicyWhite House
December 15, 2016

by Tim Sklar (Sklar and Associates/Biofuels Digest)  Take-aways from Rana Foroohar’s Article Titled  “Saving Capitalism” (Time Magazine, May 23, 2016) and her book titled ”Makers and Takers, The Rise of Finance and the Fall of American Business”.

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Although we still believe that there will be a place in our energy future for bioenergy and biofuels, we believe that the future outlook for bioenergy and biofuels development will remain uncertain, as the future of the US and the global economy has not fully recovered and the prospects for another financial melt-down and subsequent recession, remains as a distinct possibility.

Some experts are now suggesting  that the U.S. system of market capitalism itself is so broken that  another cataclysmic  collapse is imminent. We are equally concerned that the fixes that are described by these experts, may not be effective any time soon. And one has to wonder whether there is the collective will  to accept the “strong medicine” we are being told is needed.

In her new book, titled “Makers and Takers…” and her recent article that appeared in Time Magazine, Rana Foroohar has provided  excellent and lucid explanations as to how we got into the fix we are in over the last 40 years. She also describes some of the “strong medicine” that may be needed. She clearly places blame on what has happened to our financial system and describes how our financial banks, hedgefunds, mutual funds, insurance firms, and trading houses are no longer providing financing to the real economy. She admonishes those who own and manage our financial institutions for being so self-serving that they are no longer a help to business. She concludes that our financial institutions have now become a hinderance to business and are no longer serving the real economy or society as  a whole. Unfortunately, she devotes only one 10-page chapter out of eleven of her book to the discussion of five big ideas that would integrate finance into the real economy, to better serve our shared prosperity and growth.

...  this synopsis is offered. It highlights each of her chapters in “Makers and Takers”, and culls out the various “fixes” that are mentioned. I then opine on what has to happen to implement each “fix”. This  should help the reader decide for themselves, whether obtaining such a fix is probable or problematic.

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What’s Changed? Increased Financialization

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She notes that our financial institutions were initially designed to provide financing to businesses and consumers.

But due to increased “financialization”, these financial institutions have shifted away from  financing the real economy  and are increasingly using  “financialization” as their primary way for  creating wealth.

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She claims that these practices have been so lucrative as to  deprived businesses that operate in the real economy that actually make things,  of the funding they need to recover and to grow.

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“Movers and Takers” presents four major findings.

1) The capital markets and the banking  sector in particular, are providing less funding for new investments  as most of the money in the system is being used in lending against existing assets. And the financial industry’s focus has changed from lending to speculation.

2) Financial institutions are increasingly behaving less like banks and more like casinos. These institutions are using a variety financialization schemes to boost their share prices through investing  and trading securities for their own account in order to run up the value of their stocks through stock buy-backs.

3) Financial institutions have also used these financialization strategies to create wealth for their CEOs and other officers thought offering stock options as bonuses, then buying back these awarded shares at inflated values.

4) Many American corporations other than the financial institutions, have embraced comprehensive financialization strategies. Some of them have decided not to re-invest in growing their core businesses, but to divert their sources of financing away from  business growth activities and market expansions to serve consumers in the real economy. Instead they have been using  their investment capital to acquire and trade assets in order to inflate asset values and increase their stockholders’ share value.

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Chapter 11  Refocusing Finance-Servicing Both Business and Society

This most important but very short (12-page) chapter contains Ms. Foroohar’s prescriptions “how to put finance back in service to business and society”. It is organized under five topic headings. Each topic lists  a mix of specific “fixes” and more  often than not, only general solutions are offered. These “fixes” are briefly discussed. The most relevant ones include comments made with respect to those of us who are still trying to develop viable projects the real economy.

Changing Our System of Market Capitalism

Market capitalism as we know it has evolved over decades, creating  a finance system that has hindered, rather than helped business and society. There seems to be general agreement that a set of  rules that govern our financial system ought to be made to foster more equitable  wealth distribution and to stimulate economic growth.  And specific rule  changes are now needed to  better regulate finance, fix corporate governance and revise our tax system. Wisely, Ms. Foroohar believes that before any of her prescriptions and reforms that she has identified are made, they ought to hashed out among a broad group of stakeholders, not just shareholders

Comments: This implies economic growth and increases in asset values are not the same thing.

Ending Complexity and Cutting Leverage

Ms. Foroohar believes that most To-Big-To-Fail financial institutions, are too complex to manage. She argues that managers are being asked to fully oversee millions of transactions involving billions of dollars, and that it cannot be assumed that good oversight can easily be achieved. She then explains that complex laws, such as the 2,319 page Dodd Frank Act of 2010, are incredibly complicated and contain many loopholes. She also believes that reinstating  the 37 page Glass-Steagle Act as a way to avoid financial crises may not be the answer either. She is calling for a comprehensive re-analysis of our past financial crises, in order to identify the steps we need to take in order to make our existing laws and regulations more understandable.She  also wants to see measures taken to prevent our financial institutions from gambling with government-insured money.

Specific recommendations cited include:

  • Moving all derivatives trading onto regulated changes;
  • Requiring better regulation over the shadow banking sector;
  • Ending offshore banking tax avoidance practices;
  • Closing tax loopholes;
  • Increasing transparency in all financial dealings;
  • Discouraging investment practices that favor short-termism;
  • Charging banks  fees, when trading stocks, bonds and derivatives;
  • Requiring banks to be more prudent, by having them put more of their own money into risky deals;
  • Reminding  financiers to be aware that they too  will share pain when crises do happen; and,
  • Holding banks to higher standards by emphasizing  the primacy of their role as catalysts to business.

Use of Less Debt and More Equity

Ms.Foroohar makes a compelling case for using less debt and more equity, when trying to stimulate private sector growth. She clearly expresses the view that although increased use of debt (e.g., its credit) can stimulate growth, it has limits. She also argues that large amounts of debt are always a precursor  to financial crises and a larger financial sector often means a less stable economy. She then recommends that banks be required to use at least 20 to 30 percent equity when making investments;

She then warns that if the amount of credit being used to stimulate growth rises too quickly, it increases  the risk of having a financial crisis that would slow any economic recovery.

She realizes that “goosing” the economy in a safer manner is a challenge, requiring: establishing  political consensus for undertaking many of the “fixes” that have been identified; re-educating those in the finance industry who have been engaging in excessive financialization practices; obtaining a consensus from all economic sectors for developing a cohesive national growth strategy that can be sustained without creating bubbles; and, revamping of our tax system that better serves the real economy and bolsters of  the social safety net. Another tall order!

She then identifies a number of discrete steps that could be taken to encourage savings and building equity, other than by self-funding.

Mentioned are such measures as:

  • Modifying regulations and tax credits to encourage banks to lend more to socially useful causes versus engaging in short-term trading transactions;
  • Allowing debt service payments to be lowered in periods where GDP is temporarily declining; and,
  • Allowing mortgage rates to downward adjust in times of falling housing prices,  so that mortgages do not go upside-down to the degree that property owners decide to default on mortgage  payments and walk away from their properties.

Comments: Briefly discussed in recent articles and not specifically addressed in this book are problems that have surfaced as a consequence of allowing consumers easy access to high cost credit especially in the area of credit cards, auto loans and title loans. The excesses that have occurred in this area have contributed to our wealth distribution problems and to a slow economic recovery.  The remedies for these excesses point to the lax lending policies of the issuers  of consumer credit and the usurous terms under which such credit is being issued. And there are some recent reports that there is now a considerable number of auto loans that have become sub-prime, leading to the formation of a secondary market  for bundles of a toxic mix of such loans and their derivatives. This has now reached a point where another bubble  is being created which could burst at any time.

Changing The Corporate Mindset of American Business and Finance

This chapter calls for a re-examination of the notion that companies should be run solely (emphasis added) for the benefit of shareholders.  As previously explained, Ms. Foroohar believes  that this has become a problem because shareholders are “short-term focused” and companies have become “quarterly-results-driven” which is undermining their  “long-term viability”. She also believes that this “mindset” has led to companies “jacking up their share prices and cashing out as quickly as possible”.  She attributes this cycle to  having led to slow economic growth  and the proliferation of consumer debt products that financial institutions now offer. She then warns us again that  “this will lead to creation of risky financial bubbles that explode on a regular basis that will take us all down with them”.

Her remedies for mitigating this effect include

  • Imposing regulations to limit the amount and size offshore buybacks;
  • Raising capital gains taxes using a sliding scale that accounts for how long an asset is held;
  • Imposing regulations to limit the amount of corporate pay that can be awarded in stock options; and,
  • Imposing regulations that would require American corporations to include among their board members representatives from their labor force and from civic leaders,  not just representatives from their exiting investors and other stake holders.

Building A New Growth Model

Ms. Foroohar concludes that “financialization is both a cause and a symptom of slower growth” and “too much finance hinders growth”. She has also observed that slower growth encourages policy makers to use finance as a quick fix to deep structural problems within our financial system and it is these “quick fixes” that have created global market reverberations  that has led us to the dysfunctional cycle of financialization that we now have.

She explains that economic growth of the emerging markets is putting pressure on the US to continue to grow its economy, while at the same time it is creating huge amounts of new wealth for these developing nations that they are now investing into our financial markets. But  she concludes that we have not invested these funds wisely, as they had been used by our financial institutions to create new debt bubbles in the US economy, while slowing down long-term investment and economic growth and creating  a rising inequality in wealth distribution. She observed that from the 1980’s onward  these bubbles had been amplified by deregulation and easy credit and they finally burst in 2008. And as a consequence American companies and American consumers stopped spending and our economic recovery is still lagging. Not good! 

In addressing how to break this dysfunctional cycle, Ms. Foroohar  calls for regional cooperation in the global economy on part of its major emerging partner players, such as China, Japan Europe and America. She is also calling for the establishment of a “strong economic growth model that would bolster the real economy”. She argues that such a model must have as its primary objective, the creation of substantial gains in productivity and innovation of the real economy, that can never be achieved through short-term financialization. This is indeed a “new moonshot goal for economic growth” (her words, not mine), as it requires a broad consensus among the public and private sectors, among regions and a set of longer term commitments.

On a national scale, she envisions that the US should establish a national green stimulus program where sustainable energy technologies are developed and investments made to obtain material sources of sustainable energy, while generating economic growth. As to Europe, she would like to see members of  the EU  create a “federalist system” where wealth transfers between rich and poor countries could then be used to create a sustainable growth model for all members. And as to China, Japan, South Korea, Singapore, and Taiwan, she would hope that they all cooperate in making the transition from  “a manufacturing driven economy”, to “a more sophisticated service-driven economy that also manufactures in a sustainable manner”. She realizes that China in particular, has to sort out whether its  autocracy can coexist with advanced capitalism so it too can avoid financial crises  and recessions and achieve a better and more sustainable way to stimulate growth. A tall order indeed!

Changing The Narrative by Empowering “The Makers” 

Ms Foroohar wraps up her  narrative listing a number of ideas on how to build a healthier market system that put the entire global economy on a better path. She observes that “financialization” of our “market system”  by “moneyed interests”, that “enriches only the select few”, can no longer be expected to support sustainable and widely shared economic growth.

The major fundamental changes she foresees as being sorely needed include:

  • Reigning in of banking sector lobbying;
  • Making labor relations more productive and less contentious;
  • Instituting incentive pay reforms;
  • Closing  tax loopholes;
  • Making  market capitalism more transparent and less subject to fraud and abuse;
  • Changing the mindset of business leaders to modify their financing practices to be more of a ”helpmeet to business”, not just a way to accumulate wealth as “an end in and of itself”.

She then mentions a government agency-the Office of Financial Research in the US Department of Treasury (“The OFR”) that was created after the 2008 crisis “to examine where risks might lurk in the financial system” She claims that “it has already done great work” and recommends that it be given further independence and put outside of the jurisdiction of The Treasury and be used to “further explore ways to avoid financial crises in the future”. 

Observation: Although using The OFR in this way sounds like a good idea, the question remains as to whether regulators and the finance industry will take their advise.

Commentary: If one agrees with Ms. Foroohar that most, if not all of prescriptions for “fixing” our financial system are needed, questions remain as to who will take the initiative to see that these fixes are adequately considered or initiated let alone undertaken. Much depends on changes that are needed in the mindset of those decision makers who  are involved with the “Makers and Takers” of American business, and with our governmental agencies , our international partners, our politicians,  and our voting public.

To bring about such widespread changes in thinking, it will require sustained leadership and cooperation, that I believe is not in-the-cards, unless there is another occurence of some economic catastrophe. But there  are a number of suggestions being made that could go a long way to answering the basic question: “ Can We Avoid Another Cataclysmic Meltdown Of The Global  Financial System?”

Ms. Foroohar and others believe such a meltdown is still highly probable     READ MORE and MORE (The Washington Post) and MORE (The Nation)

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forecasts foreign oil Foreign Policy forest Forest Biomass for Energy forest biotechnology forest residue/waste Forest resources Forest Service forestry forklifts Formate formic acid fossil carbon fossil fuel Frace fracking fractionation fragrance France franchise fraud free fatty acids (FFA) Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) freight/cargo French French Guiana fructose fruit FT-SKA fuel fuel additives fuel cell electric vehicle (FCEV) fuel cells fuel economy fuel efficiency fuel injection fuel mixtures fuel molecules fuel oil fuel performance fuel prices Fuel Quality Directive (FQD) fuel registration Fuel Retailers fuel testing fuel transportation fuel use fuel wholesaler fully burdened cost fund funding fungus/fungi Furanics furfural fusel oils Future Farmers of America (FFA) Gabon gallium Gambia games gas prices gas tax/highway user fee gas-to-liquid (GTL) gasification gasoline gasoline baseline gasoline consumption gasoline mandate gasoline markets gasoline price gasoline-range hydrocarbons Gemany General Services Administration general waiver authority generators genetically engineered yeast cells genetically enhanced microbes genetically modified organism (GMO) genome Georgia Georgia (country) geothermal German Germany Gerrmany Ghana GHG (Greenhouse Gas Emissions) GHG (Greenhouse Gas Emissions) Intensity giant cane giant kelp Giant King Grass Giant Reed/Arundo GIS glass tubing gliricidia sepium global rebound effect Global South global warming global warming potential glucose glycerin glycerin standards glycerol goats gorse Governance practices) Government Accountability Office (GAO) government investment government resources government subsidies grain sorghum/milo grain speculators grains GRAND-AM grants grants-local grants-state grapefruit grapes graphene graphite GRAS (generally regarded as safe) Grasses grasses grasshoppers grease Great Green Fleet Great Lakes Greece green bonds green chemistry Green Deal EU green economy green house facility Green Jobs Green New Deal Green Racing Green Recovery green/black economy Greenland GREET Greenhouse Gases Regulated Emissions and Energy Use in Transportation Model Grenada gribble growers gua beans Guam guar Guatemala guayule Guerbet reaction Guinea Guinea Bissau Gulf states gulmohar Gumweed (grindelia squarosa) Guyana GWP gypsum h Haiti Halophytes harvest site processing harvesting Hawai'i hay hazardous waste hazelnut HBIIP Higher Blends Infrastructure Incentive Program HDCJ HDO-SAK (hydro deoxygenated synthetic aromatic kerosene) health health benefits health effects heat of combustion heat of vaporization heat-tolerance heather heating oil/fuel Heavy Duty Truck Rule heavy duty vehicles (HDV) hedging HEFA (Hydro-processed esters and fatty acids) HEFA50 helicopters hemicellulace enzymes hemicellulose hemicellulosic sugars Hemp hemp oil hemp seed herb hexanol HFO (Heavy Residual Fuel Oil) hibiscus high blend renewable fuels (HBRF) High Hydrogen Content Synthetic Paraffinic Kerosene (HHC-SPK) High Octane Fuel (HOF) High Octane Fuel Standard High Octane Gasoline (HOG) high octane low carbon (HOLC) fuel High Octane Vehicles (HOV) high performance regular high school project high sulphur fuel oil (HSFO) high-octane/low-carbon (HOLC) liquid fuels Highway Bill highway rights-of-way Highway Trust Fund history hog farmers hombayniya homogeneous-charge compression-ignition Honduras honey locust Hong Kong Honge tree nuts hops horticulture Housing and Urban Development (HUD) HPF (High Performance Fuels) HRJ (Hydrotreated Renewable Jet) human rights Hungary Hurricane Sandy HVO (Hydrotreated vegetable oil) HVO100 HVO20 HVO30 Hybrid aircraft hybrid buses hybrid locomotive hybrid ships hybrids hydrocarbon fuels Hydrocarbon-Hydroprocesed Esters and Fatty Acids (HC-HEFA-SPK) hydrodeoxygenation hydrodiesel hydrofaction hydroformylation hydrogen aircraft hydrogen carrier hydrogen combustion engines hydrogen fuel cells hydrogen leaks hydrogen pipeline hydrogen price hydrogen pumps/fueling stations hydrogen tax credit hydrogen terminal Hydrogen/Renewable Hydrogen Hydrogen/Renewable Hydrogen Price hydrogenase hydrogenation hydrogenation-derived renewable diesel (HDRD) hydrogenolysis hydropower Hydroprocessed fermented sugars to synthetic isoparaffins (HFS-SIP) hydroprocessing hydropyrolysis hydrothermal carbonization hydrothermal gasification hydrothermal liquefaction (HTL) hydrothermal treatment Hydrotreated renewable diesel (HRD) hydrotreating hydrotreatment hydrous ethanol hypoxia zone Iceland Idaho Illinois Illiois illuppai ILUC (Indirect/Induced Land Use Change) import/export incinerator ash India Indian beech tree Indian grass Indiana indirect effects indirect emissions indirect fuel use change indium Indonesia industrial burners industrial ethanol industrial gases industrial sugars industrial waste industrial waste gases IndyCar infographic Infrastructure inhibitors innovation insecticide/pesticide insects insurance integrated biorefineries integrated food/energy systems intellectual property Inter-American Development Bank inter-crop interactive map intercropping internal combustion engine (ICE) internal combustion engine (ICE)/gasoline engine ban International international balance of payments International Council on Clean Transportation (ICCT) International Energy Agency (IEA) International Maritime Organization (IMO) International Monetary Fund (IMF) International Organization for Standardization (ISO) International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) International Sustainability and Carbon Certification model(ISCC) International Trade International Trade Administration International Trade Commission Internships inulin invasive species Investing investment tax credit Invvesting ionic liquids Iowa IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Iran Iraq Ireland iridium iron iron oxide IRS (Internal Revenue Service) IS 1460 ISO 8217 (marine distillate fuel standard) ISO 9000 isobutanol isobutanol price isobutanol pump price isobutene isobutylene isomerisation isooctane isooctene isopropanol Israel Italy Ivory Coast JAA jackfruit Jamaica jamelão Japan jatobá Jatropha Jersey Jerusalem artichoke jet jet A Jet A-1 jet B Jetfuel (Sustainable Aviation Fuel (SAF)) Jimmy Carter Jobs Joint Office of Energy and Transportation jojoba Jordan JP-10 JP-4 JP-5/NATO F-44 JP-8/NATO F-34 juniper Just A MInute Just Transition jute K-12 Education Kabakanjagala kalanchoe kamani Kans grass Kansas Karanja Kazakhstan kelp Kemiri Sunan kenaf Kentucky Kenya kerosene ketones kinggrass Kiribati knotweed Knowledge Discovery Framework Korea Kosovo kudzu kukui nut kulpa kusum Kuwait Kygryzstan labels labor policy Labrador lactic acid lactose Lake County lamp oil land ownership land prices land rights land subsidence land tenure land transfer land use land use change land use policy landfill methane Landfills landscape Laos Latin America Latvia LCFS (Low Carbon Fuel Standard) lead Leadtree leaf ant Lebanon lecithin legislation Legislation-Federal 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microbiology microorganisms/microbes microwave Mid-Atlantic Middle East Midwest mileage military military policy military reserves military specifications military strategic flexibility military strategy military use of biofuels milk permeate millennium fruit millet millettia pinnata milo stover mineralization minerals mining Minn Minnesota miscanthus misfueling missile fuel Mississippi Missouri mixed prarie mobile refinery modeling modular molasses mold molinia molybdenum MON (Motor Octane Number) Monaco Mongolia mongongo monitoring/measuring reporting verifiction (MRV) Montana Montenegro moose morama Moringa tree Morocco morula motorcycles motors MOVES (motor vehicle emissions simulator) modeling system MOVES2014 MOVES3 (MOtor Vehicle Emission Simulator model) Mozambique MSW (Municipal Solid Waste) MTBE (Methyl tert-butyl ether) multi-fuel municipal/city mushroom mushroom substrate mustard seed mvr Myanmar n-butanol n-butene nahar Namibia nano nano particles nanocatalysts 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Nevada New Brunswick new fuel approval New Guinea New Hampshire New Jersey New Mexico New South Wales New York New Zealand Newfoundland Newfoundland and Labrador next generation biofuels next generation vehicles NHRA drag racing Nicaragua nickel Niger Nigeria nipa sap nitrate leaching nitrates nitrogen Nitrogen fertiliser nitrogen starvation nitrous oxide (N2O) Niue NO2 noodles nopal North Africa North America North Carolina North Dakota North Korea Northeast northern catalpa Northern Ireland Northern Territory Northwest Territories Norwary Norway Nova Scotia NOx (nitrogen oxides) noxious weeds nuclear Nunavut nut shells nutraceuticals nutrient credit trading nutrient management nutrients nutrition oak oat hulls oat straw oats Obligated Parties/Point of Obligation (PoO) ocean-based energy Oceania octane octane price/value octanol Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Office of Management and Budget (OMB) Office of Science and Technology Policy Office of Science and Technology Policy (OSTP) Office of Science Technology and Policy (OSTP) Offices of Inspector Generals offtake agreements Ohio oil oil embargo oil exploration oil monopoly oil p oil price parity oil prices oil production oil refineries oil replacement oil sands oil seed oil seed crops oil speculators oil spill oil subsidies oil taxes oil/gas terminals Oils Oklahoma olefins oligomerization olive cake olive oil olive pits olive pomace olive water olives Oman Omega-3s on-farm algae production on-farm ammonia production on-farm biodiesel on-farm ethanol production on-farm natural gas production on-farm processing on-site hydrogen production one p one pound waiver onion waste online courses Ontaio Ontario OPEC (Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries) open fuel standard open pond opportunity zones optimized flex fuel vehicles orange peel orchard grass orchard prunings Oregon organic solar cells Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) osage orange OSHA Overseas Private Investment Corporation overview overview/survey course owa oxygen oxygenate ozone Pakistan Palau palm palm biomass palm fatty acid distillate palm fiber palm fronds palm kernel palm kernel oil palm kernel shell palm oil Palm Oil Methyl Ester (PME) palm oil mill effluent (POME) palm oil prices palm trunk sap palm waste Paludiculture/peatland cultivation Panama pandas panic grass papaya paper Papua Indonesia Papua New Guinea paraffins Paraguay Paris Agreement parity partial waiver particulates pasture land Patent and Trademark Office (PTO) patents pathways Paulownia paulownia tree payments peach shell peaches peak oil peak oil demand peanuts/groundnuts peas pectin peela kaner pellet pellets Pennsylvania pennycress/stinkweed pentane pentanol pentose pequi perennial grains perennial grasses Performance permitting Peru pest-tolerance pesticide-tolerance pests pet food petition petroleum pharmaceuticals phase separation Philippines phosphorus photobioreactor photoelectrocatalysis photoelectrochemical photolysis photosynthesis phragmites pigeon pea pilot pilot scale pine pine beetle pine needles pine nut pineapple Pineapple leaf pinion Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Admin (PHMSA) pipelines Pistacia chinensis PLA plant cell research plant cell walls plant oil plastic plastic-to-jet platinum Plug-in Flex Fuel Hybrid Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle (PHEV) plume grass Poand podcasts Poland poli Policy politics pollinators pollution pollution control polyethylene polyfuel polymer polymerization polysaccharides pomace pomegranates pongamia pongamia pinnata poplar poppy population control Portable refinery Portugal poster sessions potamogeton potassium potato poultry litter/waste power power-to-x/gas/liquid prairie grasses pre-processing precision farming/agriculture precursors/biointermediates premium gasoline Pretreatment pretreatment equipment price price of water prickly pear Prince Edward Island process flow diagram producer tax credit Production tax 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RNG tax credit roadmap rocket fuel Romania RON (Research Octane Number) rosin rotation crops Roundtable on Sustainable Biomaterials (RSB) royalties RP-1 RTP (rapid thermal processing) rubber rubber seeds rumen ruminants rural development Rural Energy for America Program (REAP) Rural Energy Self-Sufficiency Initiative Rural Renewable Energy Pilot Program rushes Russia Russian olive rutabaga Rwanda ry rye Rye grass rye straw s saccharification SAF pipeline SAF10 SAF30 SAF40 SAFc (Sustainable Aviation Fuel certificates) Safer and Affordable Fuel Efficient Vehicles (SAFE) safety safflower sago pond weed SAIC sal tree Salicornia salt water salt-tolerant saltbush saltcedar Samoa Sanctions Santa Monica sardine oil Saskatchewan Saudi Arabia sawdust scale up Scandinavia scholarships/fellowships Science Advisory Board (SAB) Science Based Targets initiative (SBTi) Science Policy scooters Scotland scum sea level rise seaports seashore mallow seawater seaweed cultivation Seaweed/Macroalgae second-generation biofuel income tax credit Section 526 Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) seed husks seed-to-wheel Senegal Serbia sesame sewage Seychelles shale shale gas shale oil shark oil sheep shellfish shipping shipping containers shipworm siam weed Sierra Leone silage silica Silphie/cup plant/Indian cup silver silver maple simarouba Singapore Singpore sisal SK slash Slovakia Slovakia/Slovak Republic Slovenia sludge Small Business Administration Small Business Innovatin Research (SBIR) Small Business Technology Transfer (STTR) Program small engines small refinery exemption (SRE) smog smokestack soap soapstock Social social benefit investing social cost social value social venture Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) soi soil soil amendments soil carbon soil health soil microbial biomass solar energy solar energy-to-chemical conversion solar fuel solar thermochemical hydrogen (STCH) solaris Solid Oxide Electrolyzer Cell (SOEC) solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) Solomon Islands 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