ACE to EPA: Adopt GREET Model and Recognize Ethanol’s Low Carbon Value

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April 04, 2022

by Helena Tavares Kennedy (Biofuels Digest)  In South Dakota, The American Coalition for Ethanol submitted feedback to the Environmental Protection Agency’s request for comment on the current scientific understanding of greenhouse gas modeling of land-based crop biofuels.

ACE CEO Brian Jennings and ACE Board Director Ron Alverson contributed to the feedback after attending EPA’s workshop on biofuel GHG modeling. The comments cover subject areas that illustrate why EPA must update the methodology it uses to account for the lifecycle GHG emissions of ethanol and other biofuels to properly credit their GHG benefits to meet climate goals.

The topics covered include: the role corn ethanol can play in combatting climate change; land use change discrepancies, along with research that debunks the flawed Lark et al. study findings and the mythical tie between ethanol and food price increases; why GREET is the gold standard modeling tool and should be adopted by EPA; how efficient use of fertilizer is reducing nitrous oxide emissions; and soil carbon sequestration advances through climate-smart farming. The comments conclude by detailing a first-of-its-kind pilot project ACE is leading to convince market regulators and lifecycle modelers to provide carbon credits for certain farming practices.  READ MORE

Docket No. EPA-HQ-OAR-2021-0921-0001  --  Request for Comments on the Current Scientific Understanding of Greenhouse Gas Modeling of LandBased Crop Biofuels (American Coalition for Ethanol)

RFA to EPA: Use Current Data and GREET Model to Update Corn Ethanol GHG Analysis (Renewable Fuels Association)

COMMENTS OF THE RENEWABLE FUELS ASSOCIATION (RFA) IN RESPONSE TO THE EPA WORKSHOP ON BIOFUEL GREENHOUSE GAS MODELING DOCKET ID NO. EPA-HQ-OAR-2021-0921 (86 Fed. Reg. 73757) (Renewable Fuels Association)

Groups urge EPA to adopt GREET, improve GHG modeling of biofuels (Ethnaol Producer Magazine)

 

Excerpt from American Coalition for Ethanol:  Corn Ethanol is Part of the Solution to Address Climate Change

ACE members firmly believe corn ethanol and other biofuels need to be a meaningful part of the solution to achieving these important climate goals. In fact, during its fourth quarter meeting of 2021, the ACE board of directors unanimously adopted the following resolution to compliment the administration’s climate goals: “The ACE Board of Directors supports the adoption of policies at the state and/or federal level which recognize ethanol is part of the climate and health solution while crediting farmers and ethanol producers for activities which will help ethanol reduce lifecycle GHG emissions by at least 70% on average compared to gasoline by 2030, and reach net-zero lifecycle GHG emissions by 2050.”1

In order to realize the goal of net-zero GHG emissions by midcentury, the U.S. will need to implement a policy framework to increase the use of low carbon biofuels such as corn-based ethanol which can displace fossil fuels. We acknowledge the administration heavily favors the use of electric vehicles (EVs) to decarbonize the transportation sector, but this overlooks the power grid realities that cause many EVs to have significant lifecycle GHG emissions and the practical reality that it will be impossible to electrify the entire transportation sector. In 2021 the Rhodium Group released a compelling report indicating even under most aggressive sales projections, EVs alone will not accomplish the goal of the Biden administration to reach net-zero emissions by 2050.2 Rhodium explained that increased reliance of clean fuels (and efficiency standards) will be needed to close the emissions gap. In order to properly account for the climate benefits of land-based crop biofuels that we will rely upon to help meet climate goals, it is past time for EPA to finally update the methodology it uses to account for the lifecycle GHG emissions of ethanol and other biofuels.

...

The Harvard/Tufts study found that average corn ethanol reduces GHGs by 46 percent compared to gasoline and given improvements occurring in corn farming and within ethanol facilities, corn ethanol’s carbon footprint will continue to decline over time.

EPA’s Assessment of Land Use Change is Far Overstated

Land use change represents one of the most glaring discrepancies between EPA’s outdated approach to lifecycle modeling and more recent versions of the GREET model as well as other research on this topic.

We recognize there will be a degree of uncertainty about actual land use change, and each model will result in variability based on methodologies used, but recent and comprehensive modeling and research on land use indicates it is far past time for EPA to update its assessment.

EPA’s outdated modeling used in the final RFS rule (in 2010) assigns an enormous land use change penalty of 29 grams to the overall carbon intensity (CI) of corn ethanol, as illustrated in the chart on page 3. Subsequent and more sophisticated research on land use change, in addition to the fact that the U.S. has produced more than 15 billion gallons of corn ethanol so actual land use changes can be observed, indicates a more accurate land use factor between 3.78 and 7.5 grams, as illustrated on the far right of the graph using recent versions of the GREET model.

...

 

Even the California Air Resources Board (CARB), in its implementation of the Low Carbon Fuel Standard (LCFS), has reduced the corn ethanol land use change assumption from the 30-gram penalty it originally applied based on a 2009 assessment with a 19.8-gram factor today based on an assessment it did in 2015. While the 19.8-gram land use change penalty is still inexplicably higher than what most research suggests should be the case, the fact remains CARB has at least tried to update their land use emissions related to corn ethanol while EPA has not.

Recent Lark et al. Paper Wildly Overstates Land Use Change

...

One of the most definitive analyses done on this topic was published in the Biomass and Bioenergy Journal by D.S. Shrestha et al. in 2019.8 According to the abstract (emphasis added): “Food price and land use data over an extended time period have been examined to identify possible correlations between biofuel production and food price or land use changes. We compared the food price index before and after the biofuel boom in the 2000s to evaluate biofuel’s impact on the inflation rate. We found that the U.S. food price inflation rate since 1973 could be divided into three distinct regions. The inflation was lowest at 2.6% during 1991-2016, which encompasses the biofuel boom. Among many factors, continuously rising food production per capita was identified as the likely cause of low food price inflation during this period. The U.S. exports of corn have not declined since the 1990s and soybean exports are rising at a steady rate. Among several variables tested as a cause of food price index increase, crude oil price had the highest correlation.

We also manually verified the automated land use classification of satellite image covering 664 km2 in three selected areas in the U.S. We found that 10.9% of nonagricultural land was misclassified as agriculture, whereas only 2.33% of agricultural land was misclassified as non-agriculture. The automated classification showed an 8.53% increase in agricultural land from 2011 to 2015, which the manual classification showed only 0.31% increase. This result was within the margin of error alluding to no significant land use change. We concluded that automated satellite image land use classification should be verified more rigorously to be used for land use change
analysis.”

Since we are in a period where crude oil prices are high again due to geopolitical unrest and there are concerns about inflation in general and food prices specifically, we know EPA will be under enormous pressure from certain groups to blame biofuel production for food price increases and to bake this faulty assumption into future GHG modeling of biofuels. We strongly encourage the Agency to heed this finding from Shrestha et al. on the issue of biofuels and food prices (emphasis added): “Globally, it was found that the food price index had highest correlation with crude oil price and 96% of the variability could be explained from the crude oil price and world population. Looking at the discrepancies between model predictions and observed data, we concluded that the assumptions in economic models predicting the impact of biofuel on food prices and indirect land use change needs to be revised, and carefully assessed to see if the model captures the complex real-world dynamics adequately by validating the results against real-world data.”

Finally, knowing there was considerable discussion of satellite images for estimating land use change during the EPA workshop held earlier this year, we share the conclusion from Shrestha et al. (emphasis added): “Based on our findings, it was concluded that satellite analysis is not an accurate method of determining land use change. In summation, our findings indicate that there has been no significant change in U.S. food prices due to biofuels and biofuels have not caused any significant agricultural land use change. We conclude that machine classified satellite images do not have needed accuracy yet to be used for land use change analysis.”

The fact that USDA’s Cropland Data Layer (CDL) was never intended to be a tool for measuring land use change should be sufficient justification for dismissing the inaccurate “conclusions” from Lark et al., and to be clear, many papers have been published over the years to explain why the CDL should not be used to determine land use change. We refer EPA to but a handful of those reports.9 10 11

GREET is the Gold Standard Model and Should be Adopted by EPA In response to EPA’s questions about what model(s) are available to evaluate the lifecycle GHG emissions of land-based biofuels, and what model(s) meet the Clean Air Act requirements for quantifying the direct and indirect emissions of biofuels, the GREET model is the global gold-standard and should be EPA’s model of choice. Unlike EPA’s badly outdated 2010 assessment, the assumptions and estimates used by Argonne scientists in GREET are under constant peer review and updates to the model occur annually.

Not only do more than 40,000 users around the world depend upon GREET to help determine the lifecycle GHG impacts of certain fuel technologies, but the model is the basis for the assessments used under the California LCFS and Oregon Clean Fuels Program. Legislation pending in Minnesota to create a clean fuel standard would statutorily require the use of the latest GREET model.12

A considerable portion of EPA’s workshop on the GHG modeling of biofuels was devoted to uncertainty. 

ACE encourages EPA to look for ways to minimize uncertainty surrounding the modeling of biofuel GHG emissions where possible, but we strongly encourage the Agency to recognize models cannot, nor are they designed to, answer all questions definitively. EPA should not dwell on uncertainty or allow a particular researcher’s opinion of what is “perfect” be the enemy of the real good the Agency can do by updating its assumptions about the GHG emissions of ethanol and by specifically choosing to adopt the gold-standard model for this purpose: the latest GREET model. We also implore EPA to recall that leading up to its promulgation of the final rule for the RFS, Searchinger et al. made extraordinary allegations about the potential land use and deforestation impacts of producing 15 billion gallons of corn ethanol in the U.S. However, as time went by, more advanced analyses and actual observations of land use changes showed that crop yields and crop switching in fact occurred instead of massive land use and deforestation changes, leading to lower and more accurate estimates of land use change emissions.

While it is an inconvenient truth for some, today’s corn ethanol meets the definition of an “advanced biofuel” under the RFS, notwithstanding the politically driven discrimination clause in the statute excluding “corn starch” ethanol from qualifying as an advanced biofuel under the program. According to the latest GREET model, average corn ethanol reduces GHG emissions by 50 percent compared to gasoline. In other words, we do not need to wait for so-called next generation crops or biofuels, or EVs and an entirely new supply chain to support them, to immediately begin tackling climate change. The GREET model is likely to be updated soon to account for the increased adoption of reduced tillage corn production, enhanced efficiency fertilizer use, and soil carbon sequestration from corn. When the GREET model reflects these updates, corn ethanol will get credit for reducing GHG emissions by between 60 and 70 percent compared to gasoline.

The lifecycle GHG emissions of corn ethanol can be divided between corn farming activities and the ethanol production process. Many ethanol producers have invested in technology to reduce CI within their facilities, but future progress on the ethanol production side is likely to be incremental. On the other hand, corn production holds the greatest potential for meaningful GHG improvements in the future. For example, practices to apply nitrogen fertilizer more efficiently and minimize N2O emissions provide nearterm opportunities to reduce farm-level GHG emissions attributed to the lifecycle CI of ethanol.

Additionally, tillage practices fostering enhanced soil carbon sequestration should result in a credit to offset or further reduce corn production GHG emissions.

Efficient Use of Fertilizer is Reducing Nitrous Oxide Emissions from Corn Production

...

Soil Carbon Sequestration from Climate-Smart Farming

USDA has indicated agriculture can play an important role in mitigating climate change through soil carbon sequestration, which the department identifies as “among the best options for carbon storage in terrestrial ecosystems,” and estimates that U.S. farmers already store 20 million metric tons of carbon per year. USDA forecasts that agriculture could store an additional 180 million metric tons per year, representing an estimated 12-14 percent of total U.S. carbon emissions annually.

...

Ultimately, the combination of climate-smart farming practices, constant improvements and efficiencies within ethanol facilities, and carbon capture and sequestration (CCS) puts corn ethanol on a trajectory to reach both net-zero and net-negative emissions – a trajectory that is unique to ethanol and squarely puts farmers and biofuel producers in a position to be a meaningful part of the solution to climate change.

...

1 Motion adopted by American Coalition for Ethanol Board of Directors on November 10, 2021.
https://ethanol.org/ethanol-essentials/low-carbon-benefits-of-corn-ethanol

2 Closing the Transportation Emissions Gap with Clean Biofuels. January 15, 2021. https://rhg.com/research/closingthe-transportation-emissions-gap-with-clean-fuels/

3 The Case for Properly Valuing the Low Carbon Benefits of Corn Ethanol. (2018) https://ethanol.org/ethanolessentials/low-carbon-benefits-of-corn-ethanol

4 https://greet.es.anl.gov

5 https://ethanol.org/news/news/2021/01/26/new-study-showing-corn-ethanol-reduces-carbon-emissions-by-nearly-50-percent-cites-ace-low-carbon-white-paper/

6 Lark, T.J., Hendricks, N.P., Smith, A., Pates, N., Spawn-Lee, S.A., Bougie, M., Booth, E.G., Kucharik, C.J., and Gibbs, H.K., 2022. Environmental Outcomes of the U.S. Renewable Fuel Standard.

7 Farzad Taheripour, Steffen Mueller, Hoyoung Kwon, Madhu Khanna, Isaac Emery, Ken Copenhaver, and Michael Wang, 2022. Comments on “Environmental Outcomes of the U.S. Renewable Fuel Standard.”

8 D.S. Shrestha, B.D. Staab, and J.A. Duffield. (2019). Biofuel Impact on Food Prices Index and Land Use Change.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biombioe.2019.03.003

9 Dunn, Mueller, and Eaton. Comments on Cropland Expansion Outpaces Agricultural and Biofuel Policies in the U.S. April 29, 2015

10 Reitsma, Clay, Clay, Dunn, and Reese. Does the U.S. Cropland Data Layer Provide an Accurate Benchmark for
Land-Use Change Estimates? January 14, 2016

11 Wang, Wander, Mueller, Martin, and Dunn. Evaluation of Survey and Remote Sensing Data Products Used to
Estimate Land Use Change in the United States: Evolving Issues and Emerging Opportunities. Environmental Science and Policy Journal. December 2021.

12 https://www.house.leg.state.mn.us/bills/Info/HF2083/92/2021/0

13 “Estimating Net Carbon Emissions and Agricultural Response to Potential Carbon Offset Policies”. http://agris.fao.org/agris-search/search.do?recordID=US201500052566

14 https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/gcbb.12631

15 https://www.usda.gov/sites/default/files/documents/LCA_of_Corn_Ethanol_2018_Report.pdf

16 https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/ab794e

 

 

Excerpt from Renewable Fuels Association:  More broadly, the principles of lifecycle analysis (e.g., ISO 14040) require that consistent analytical boundaries be used when evaluating and comparing the relative attributes of competing products. It is inarguable that all forms of energy have associated indirect economic effects, many of which have implications for a fuel’s lifecycle GHG emissions. Thus, assuming the EPA includes ILUC in LCAs for biofuels, the Agency must also take into account the additional emissions that petroleum-based fuels induce through indirect economic effects at the resource margin. Otherwise, a comparison of GHG  emissions from biofuels and petroleum-based fuels would not be on an “apples-to-apples” basis. Still, regulators should only quantify indirect effects in a manner that is scientifically defensible and driven by consensus-based methods.

2 Lee, U., Kwon, H., Wu, M. and Wang, M. (2021). Retrospective Analysis of the U.S. Corn Ethanol Industry for
2005–2019: Implications for Greenhouse Gas Emission Reductions. Biofuels, Bioprod. Bioref.
https://doi.org/10.1002/bbb.2225

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Ethiopia Ethiopian mustard ethyl levulinate (EL) ethylbenzene ethylene ets eucalyptus Euglena European Emissions Trading System (ETS) European Union (EU) eutrophication executive order executive order--state externalities extremophiles f F Factor F-24 F-34 F-76 (Marine Diesel) F-T FAEE FAEE (fatty acid ethyl esters) Fair trade False Claims Act FAME (Fatty Acid Methyl Ester) Farm Bill Farm Bureau farm equipment farm policy Farm to Fleet Farm to Fly farmers farming farnesane farnesene Fats fecal sludge Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC) Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) federal land Federal Railroad Administration Federal Reserve Bank Federal Trade Commission (FTC) Federal Transit Administration (FTA) feed Feed In Tariffs (FIT) feed prices Feedstock Flexibility Program for Bioenergy Producers feedstock logistics feedstock material feedstock prices feedstock storage feedstock terminal feedstock transportation Feedstocks fermentation ferry fertilizer fiber Fiji Financing Finland Fischer-Tropsch Synthetic Kerosene with Aromatics (FT-SKA) Fischer-Tropsch Synthetic Paraffinic Kerosene (FT-SPK) Fischer-Tropsch Synthetic Paraffinic Kerosene with Aromatics (FT-SPK/A) Fischer-Tropsch/FT fish feed fish oil fish waste fit for purpose Fixed Base Operator (FBO) flameleaf sumac flavors flax fleet turnover Fleets fleshings flex-fuel vehicles (FFV) flight tests Flightpath flixweed/tansy/herb-Sophia flood-prone soil Florida flue gas FOG (Fats/Oils/Grease) follow-the-crop food Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) Food and Drug Administration (FDA) food and fuel food policy food prices food processing waste food safety food security food vs biomaterials/bioplastics food vs fuel food waste for forage forage sorghum forecasts foreign oil Foreign Policy forest Forest Biomass for Energy forest biotechnology forest residue/waste Forest resources Forest Service forestry forklifts Formate formic acid fossil carbon fossil fuel Frace fracking fractionation fragrance France franchise fraud free fatty acids (FFA) Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) freight/cargo French French Guiana fructose fruit FT-SKA fuel fuel additives fuel cell electric vehicle (FCEV) fuel cells fuel economy fuel efficiency fuel injection fuel mixtures fuel molecules fuel oil fuel performance fuel prices Fuel Quality Directive (FQD) fuel registration Fuel Retailers fuel testing fuel transportation fuel use fuel wholesaler fully burdened cost fund funding fungus/fungi Furanics furfural fusel oils Future Farmers of America (FFA) Gabon gallium Gambia games gas prices gas tax/highway user fee gas-to-liquid (GTL) gasification gasoline gasoline baseline gasoline consumption gasoline mandate gasoline markets gasoline price gasoline-range hydrocarbons Gemany General Services Administration general waiver authority generators genetically engineered yeast cells genetically enhanced microbes genetically modified organism (GMO) genome Georgia Georgia (country) geothermal German Germany Gerrmany Ghana GHG (Greenhouse Gas Emissions) GHG (Greenhouse Gas Emissions) Intensity giant cane giant kelp Giant King Grass Giant Reed/Arundo GIS glass tubing gliricidia sepium global rebound effect Global South global warming global warming potential glucose glycerin glycerin standards glycerol goats gorse Governance practices) Government Accountability Office (GAO) government investment government resources government subsidies grain sorghum/milo grain speculators grains GRAND-AM grants grants-local grants-state grapefruit grapes graphene graphite GRAS (generally regarded as safe) Grasses grasses grasshoppers grease Great Green Fleet Great Lakes Greece green bonds green chemistry Green Deal EU green economy green house facility Green Jobs Green New Deal Green Racing Green Recovery green/black economy Greenland GREET Greenhouse Gases Regulated Emissions and Energy Use in Transportation Model Grenada gribble growers gua beans Guam guar Guatemala guayule Guerbet reaction Guinea Guinea Bissau Gulf states gulmohar Gumweed (grindelia squarosa) Guyana GWP gypsum h Haiti Halophytes harvest site processing harvesting Hawai'i hay hazardous waste hazelnut HBIIP Higher Blends Infrastructure Incentive Program HDCJ HDO-SAK (hydro deoxygenated synthetic aromatic kerosene) health health benefits health effects heat of combustion heat of vaporization heat-tolerance heather heating oil/fuel Heavy Duty Truck Rule heavy duty vehicles (HDV) hedging HEFA (Hydro-processed esters and fatty acids) HEFA50 helicopters hemicellulace enzymes hemicellulose hemicellulosic sugars Hemp hemp oil hemp seed herb hexanol HFO (Heavy Residual Fuel Oil) hibiscus high blend renewable fuels (HBRF) High Hydrogen Content Synthetic Paraffinic Kerosene (HHC-SPK) High Octane Fuel (HOF) High Octane Fuel Standard High Octane Gasoline (HOG) high octane low carbon (HOLC) fuel High Octane Vehicles (HOV) high performance regular high school project high sulphur fuel oil (HSFO) high-octane/low-carbon (HOLC) liquid fuels Highway Bill highway rights-of-way Highway Trust Fund history hog farmers hombayniya homogeneous-charge compression-ignition Honduras honey locust Hong Kong Honge tree nuts hops horticulture Housing and Urban Development (HUD) HPF (High Performance Fuels) HRJ (Hydrotreated Renewable Jet) human rights Hungary Hurricane Sandy HVO (Hydrotreated vegetable oil) HVO100 HVO20 HVO30 Hybrid aircraft hybrid buses hybrid locomotive hybrid ships hybrids hydrocarbon fuels Hydrocarbon-Hydroprocesed Esters and Fatty Acids (HC-HEFA-SPK) hydrodeoxygenation hydrodiesel hydrofaction hydroformylation hydrogen aircraft hydrogen carrier hydrogen combustion engines hydrogen fuel cells hydrogen leaks hydrogen pipeline hydrogen price hydrogen pumps/fueling stations hydrogen tax credit hydrogen terminal Hydrogen/Renewable Hydrogen Hydrogen/Renewable Hydrogen Price hydrogenase hydrogenation hydrogenation-derived renewable diesel (HDRD) hydrogenolysis hydropower Hydroprocessed fermented sugars to synthetic isoparaffins (HFS-SIP) hydroprocessing hydropyrolysis hydrothermal carbonization hydrothermal gasification hydrothermal liquefaction (HTL) hydrothermal treatment Hydrotreated renewable diesel (HRD) hydrotreating hydrotreatment hydrous ethanol hypoxia zone Iceland Idaho Illinois Illiois illuppai ILUC (Indirect/Induced Land Use Change) import/export incinerator ash India Indian beech tree Indian grass Indiana indirect effects indirect emissions indirect fuel use change indium Indonesia industrial burners industrial ethanol industrial gases industrial sugars industrial waste industrial waste gases IndyCar infographic Infrastructure inhibitors innovation insecticide/pesticide insects insurance integrated biorefineries integrated food/energy systems intellectual property Inter-American Development Bank inter-crop interactive map intercropping internal combustion engine (ICE) internal combustion engine (ICE)/gasoline engine ban International international balance of payments International Council on Clean Transportation (ICCT) International Energy Agency (IEA) International Maritime Organization (IMO) International Monetary Fund (IMF) International Organization for Standardization (ISO) International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) International Sustainability and Carbon Certification model(ISCC) International Trade International Trade Administration International Trade Commission Internships inulin invasive species Investing investment tax credit Invvesting ionic liquids Iowa IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Iran Iraq Ireland iridium iron iron oxide IRS (Internal Revenue Service) IS 1460 ISO 8217 (marine distillate fuel standard) ISO 9000 isobutanol isobutanol price isobutanol pump price isobutene isobutylene isomerisation isooctane isooctene isopropanol Israel Italy Ivory Coast JAA jackfruit Jamaica jamelão Japan jatobá Jatropha Jersey 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light rail lignin Lignin Ethanol Oil (LEO) Lignocellulosic Biofuel lignocellulosic sugars lime Lipid liquefaction liquid liquid petroleum gas (LPG) liquid transportation fuels liquidation Liquified Biogas (LBG) Liquified Biogas (LBG) pumps liquified biomethane (LBM) Liquified Natural Gas (LNG) lithium Lithuania litigation Litigation-Federal Litigation-State livestock loan guarantees loans lobbying loblolly pine locomotives lodgepole pine logistics long-term contracts Louis Louisiana low c low carbon emissions low carbon octane standard (LCOS) Low Emission Vehicle Standards (LEV) low sulfur diesel low sulfur fuel low sulfur marine fuel lubricants lumber mill Luxembourg lysis M100 M15 M3 M50 ma macadamia macauba Macedonia machine learning machinery macororo Madagascar magnesium mahua Maine Malawi Malaysia Maldives Mali mallees Malta Malyasia mamona management changes mandates mangaba manganese mango mangrove Manitoba mannose manure maple maps marginal land marine algae Marine Corps 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generation vehicles NHRA drag racing Nicaragua nickel Niger Nigeria nipa sap nitrate leaching nitrates nitrogen Nitrogen fertiliser nitrogen starvation nitrous oxide (N2O) Niue NO2 noodles nopal North Africa North America North Carolina North Dakota North Korea Northeast northern catalpa Northern Ireland Northern Territory Northwest Territories Norwary Norway Nova Scotia NOx (nitrogen oxides) noxious weeds nuclear Nunavut nut shells nutraceuticals nutrient credit trading nutrient management nutrients nutrition oak oat hulls oat straw oats Obligated Parties/Point of Obligation (PoO) ocean-based energy Oceania octane octane price/value octanol Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Office of Management and Budget (OMB) Office of Science and Technology Policy Office of Science and Technology Policy (OSTP) Office of Science Technology and Policy (OSTP) Offices of Inspector Generals offtake agreements Ohio oil oil embargo oil exploration oil monopoly oil p oil price parity oil prices oil production oil refineries oil replacement oil sands oil seed oil seed crops oil speculators oil spill oil subsidies oil taxes oil/gas terminals Oils Oklahoma olefins oligomerization olive cake olive oil olive pits olive pomace olive water olives Oman Omega-3s on-farm algae production on-farm ammonia production on-farm biodiesel on-farm ethanol production on-farm natural gas production on-farm processing on-site hydrogen production one p one pound waiver onion waste online courses Ontaio Ontario OPEC (Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries) open fuel standard open pond opportunity zones optimized flex fuel vehicles orange peel orchard grass orchard prunings Oregon organic solar cells Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) osage orange OSHA Overseas Private Investment Corporation overview overview/survey course owa oxygen oxygenate ozone Pakistan Palau palm palm biomass palm fatty acid distillate palm fiber palm fronds palm kernel palm kernel 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seeds rumen ruminants rural development Rural Energy for America Program (REAP) Rural Energy Self-Sufficiency Initiative Rural Renewable Energy Pilot Program rushes Russia Russian olive rutabaga Rwanda ry rye Rye grass rye straw s saccharification SAF pipeline SAF10 SAF30 SAF40 Safer and Affordable Fuel Efficient Vehicles (SAFE) safety safflower sago pond weed SAIC sal tree Salicornia salt water salt-tolerant saltbush saltcedar Samoa Sanctions Santa Monica sardine oil Saskatchewan Saudi Arabia sawdust scale up Scandinavia scholarships/fellowships Science Advisory Board (SAB) Science Based Targets initiative (SBTi) Science Policy scooters Scotland scum sea level rise seaports seashore mallow seawater seaweed cultivation Seaweed/Macroalgae second-generation biofuel income tax credit Section 526 Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) seed husks seed-to-wheel Senegal Serbia sesame sewage Seychelles shale shale gas shale oil shark oil sheep shellfish shipping shipping containers shipworm 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